Botulinum Toxin Therapy for Oromandibular Dystonia: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 6 by Beatrix Zheng and Version 5 by Beatrix Zheng.

Botulinum neurotoxin injection is effective and safe, with few side effects in most cases when properly administered by an experienced clinician. The diagnosis and treatment of oromandibular dystonia require both neurological and dental or oral surgical knowledge and skills, and well-designed multicenter trials with a multidisciplinary team approach must be necessary to ensure accurate diagnosis and proper treatment. 

  • botulinum toxin therapy
  • oromandibular dystonia
  • masticatory muscles
  • masseter muscle
  • lateral pterygoid muscle
  • tongue
  • lingual dystonia
  • injection method
Please wait, diff process is still running!

References

  1. Kerner, J. Vergiftung durch verdorbene Wurste. Tübinger Blätter f. Naturwissensch. u Arzneykunde. 1817, 3, 1–25.
  2. Van Ermengem, E. Über eine neuen anaeroben Bacillus und seine Beziehungen zum Botulismus. Z. Hyg. Infektionskrankh. 1897, 26, 1–56
  3. Scott, A.B. Botulinum toxin injection into extraocular muscles as an alternative to strabismus surgery. Opthalmol. 1980, 87, 1044–1049
  4. Jankovic, J.; Brin, M.F. Therapeutic uses of botulinum toxin. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991, 324, 1186–1194. [PubMed]
  5. Truong, D.D.; Stenner, A.; Reichel, G. Current clinical applications of botulinum toxin. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2009, 15, 3671–3680. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Hallett, M.; Albanese, A.; Dressler, D.; Segal, K.R.; Simpson, D.M.; Truong, D.; Jankovic, J. Evidence-based review and assessment of botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of movement disorders. Toxicon 2013, 67, 94–114. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Persaud, R.; Garas, G.; Silva, S.; Stamatoglou, C.; Chatrath, P.; Patel, K. An evidence-based review of botulinum toxin (Botox) applications in non-cosmetic head and neck conditions. JRSM Short. Rep. 2013, 4, 10. doi: 10.1177/2042533312472115
  8. Jankovic, J. An update on new and unique uses of botulinum toxin in movement disorders. Toxicon 2018, 147, 84–88. doi: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.09.003 [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Anandan, C.; Jankovic, J. Botulinum toxin in movement disorders: An update. Toxins2021, 13, 42.doi: 10.3390/toxins13010042
  10. Jankovic, J.; Orman, J. Botulinum a toxin for cranial-cervical dystonia: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology 1987, 37, 616–623. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Blitzer, A.; Brin, M.; Greene, P.E.; Fahn, S. Botulinum toxin injection for the treatment of oromandibular dystonia. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1989, 98, 93–97. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Jankovic, J.; Schwartz, K.; Donovan, D.T. Botulinum toxin treatment of cranial-cervical dystonia, spasmodic dysphonia, other focal dystonias and hemifacial spasm. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 1990, 53, 633–639. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Hermanowicz, N.; Truong, D.D. Treatment of oromandibular dystonia with botulinum toxin. Laryngoscope 1991, 101, 1216–1218. doi: 10.1288/00005537-199111000-00010
  14. Tan, E.K.; Jankovic, J. Botulinum toxin A in patients with oromandibular dystonia: long-term follow-up. Neurology 1999, 53, 2102–2107. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Yoshida, K.; Iizuka, T. Botulinum toxin treatment for upper airway collapse resulting from temporomandibular joint dislocation due to jaw-opening dystonia. Cranio 2006, 24: 217–222. doi: 10.1179/crn.2006.035.
  16. Bakke, M.; Larsen, B.M.; Dalager, T.; Møller, E. Oromandibular dystonia–functional and clinical characteristics: a report on 21 cases. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol. 2013, 115, e21–e26. doi: 10.1016/j.oooo.2012.04.023
  17. Sinclair, C.F.; Gurey, L.E.; Blitzer, A. Oromandibular dystonia: Long-term management with botulinum toxin. Laryngoscope 2013, 123, 3078–3083. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Albanese, A.; Bhatia, K.; Bressman, S.B.; Delong, M.R.; Fahn, S.; Fung, V.S.; Hallett, M.; Jankovic, J.; Jinnah, H.A.; Klein, C.; et al. Phenomenology and classification of dystonia: A consensus up date. Mov. Disord. 2013, 28, 863–873. doi: 10.1002/mds.25475.
  19. Oppenheim, H. Über eine eigenartige Krampfkrankheit des kindlichen und jugendlichen Alters (Dysbasia lordotica progressiva, Dystonia musculorum deformans). Neurologie Centralblatt 1911, 30, 1090–1107.
  20. Romberg, M.H. Krampf im Muskelgebiete der Pars minor Quinti. Masticatorischer Gesichtskrampf. Trismus. In: Lehrbuch der Nervenkaranheiten des Menschen, Alexander Duncker, Berlin, 1846; pp. 308–316.
  21. Marsden, C.D. The problem of adult-onset idiopathic torsion dystonia and other isolated dyskinesias in adult life (including blepharospasm, oromandibular dystonia, dystonic writer’s cramp, and torticollis, or axial dystonia). Adv. Neurol. 1976, 14, 259–276.
  22. Yoshida, K. Development and validation of a disease-specific oromandibular dystonia rating scale (OMDRS). Front. Neurol. 2020, 11, 583177; doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.583177
  23. Yoshida, K. Behandlungsstrategien bei oromandibulärer Dystonie. Fortschr. Neurol. Psychiatr. 2021, 89, 1562–572. doi: 10.1055/a-1375-0669.
  24. Yoshida, K.; Kaji, R.; Kubori, T. Kohara, N.; Iizuka, T.; Kimura, J. Muscle afferent block for the treatment of oromandibular dystonia. Mov. Disord. 1998; 13: 699–705. doi: 10.1002/mds.870130416.
  25. Bakke, M. ; Dalager, T. ; Møller, E. What clinical strategies are applied for botulinum toxin injection in the oromandibular region? In Botulinum Toxin therapy manual for dystonia and spasticity. Editors Rosales, R.L.; Dressler, D. 2016; pp. 79-95, IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/64271
  26. Comella, C.L. Systematic review of botulinum toxin treatment for oromandibular dystonia. Toxicon 2018, 147, 96–99. [CrossRef]
  27. Slaim, L.; Cohen, M.; Klap, P.; Vidailhet, M.; Perrin, A.; Brasnu, D.; Ayache, D.; Mailly, M. Oromandibular dystonia: demographics and clinical data from 240 Patients. J. Mov. Disord. 2018, 11, 78–81. [CrossRef]
  28. Dadgardoust, P.D.; Rosales, R.L.; Asuncion, R.M.; Dressler, D. Botulinum neurotoxin a therapy efficacy and safety for oromandibular dystonia: A meta-analysis. J. Neural Transm. 2019, 126, 141–148. [CrossRef]
  29. Yoshida, K. Oromandibular dystonia screening questionnaire for differential diagnosis. Clin. Oral Invest. 2019, 23, 405–411; doi: 10.1007/s00784-018-2449-3.
  30. Scorr, L.M.; Factor, S.A.; Parra, S.P.; Kaye, R.;Paniello, R.C.; Norris, S.A.; Perlmutter, J.S.; Bäumer, T.; Usnich, T.; Berman, B.D. et al. Oromandibular dystonia: A clinical examination of 2,020 cases. Front. Neurol. 2021, 12, 700714. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2021.700714. eCollection 2021.
  31. Yoshida, K. Prevalence and incidence of oromandibular dystonia: an oral and maxillofacial surgery service-based study. Clin. Oral Investig. 2021, 25, 5755–5764, doi:10.1007/s00784-021-03878-9.
  32. Yoshida, K. Botulinum neurotoxin injection for the treatment of recurrent temporomandibular joint dislocation with and without neurogenic muscular hyperactivity. Toxins 2018, 10, 174; doi: 10.3390/toxins10050174.
  33. Defazio, G.; Albanese, A.; Pellicciari, R; Scaglione, C.L.; Esposito, M.; Morgante, F.; Abbruzzese, G.; Bentivoglio, A.R.; Bono, F. et al. Expert recommendations for diagnosing cervical, oromandibular, and limb dystonia. Neurol. Sci. 2019, 40, 89-95. doi: 10.1007/s10072-018-3586-9.
  34. Yoshida, K. Involuntary movements of the stomatognathic region. https://sites.google.com/site/oromandibulardystoniaenglish. Accessed 1 March 2022.
  35. Frucht, S.J. Embouchure dystonia--Portrait of a task-specific cranial dystonia. Mov. Disord. 2009, 24(12), 1752-1762. doi: 10.1002/mds.22550.
  36. Saraf, U.; Chandarana, M.; Divya, K.P.; Krishnan, S. Oromandibular dystonia – A systematic review. Ann. Indian Acad. Neurol. 2022, 25, 26-34. doi: 10.4103/aian.aian_242_21
  37. Meige, H. Les convulsions de la face, une forme clinique de convulsion faciale bilatérale et médiane. Revue Neurol. 1910, 20, 437–443.
  38. Tolosa, E.S.; Klawans,K.H. Meige’s Disease: A clinical form of facial convulsion, bilateral and medial. Arch. Neurol. 1979, 36, 635–637. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Steeves, T.D.; Day, L.; Dykeman, J.; Jette, N.; Pringsheim, T. The prevalence of primary dystonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mov. Disord, 2012, 27, 1789–1796. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.25244
  40. Nutt, J.G; Muenter, M.D.; Aronson, A.; Kurland, L.T.; Melton 3rd, L.J. Epidemiology of focal and generalized dystonia in Rochester, Minnesota. Mov. Disord. 1988, 3, 188–194. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.870030302
  41. Duffey, P.O.; Butler, A.G.; Hawthorne, M.R.; Barnes, M.P. The epidemiology of the primary dystonias in the north of England. Ad. Neurol. 1998, 78, 121–125
  42. Le, K-D.; Nilsen, B.; Dietrichs, E. Prevalence of primary focal and segmental dystonia in Oslo. Neurology 2003, 61, 1294–1296. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000090463.05980.59
  43. Castelon Konkiewitz, E.; Trender-Gerhard, I.; Kamm, C.; Warner, T.; Ben-Shlomo, Y.; Gasser, T.; Conrad, B.; Ceballos-Baumann, A.O. Service-based survey of dystonia in Munich. Neuroepidemiology 2002, 21, 202–206. https://doi.org/10.1159/000059525
  44. Matsumoto, S.; Nishimura, M.; Shibasaki, H.; Kaji, R. Epidemiology of primary dystonias in Japan: comparison with Western countries. Mov. Disord. 2003, 18, 1196–1198. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.10480
  45. Pekmezovic, T.; Ivanovic, N.; Svetel, M.; Nalić, D.; Smiljković, T.; Raicević, R.; Kostić, V.S. Prevalence of primary late-onset focal dystonia in the Belgrade population. Mov. Disord. 2003, 18, 1389–1392. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.10615
  46. Asgeirsson, H.; Jakobsson, F.; Hjaltason, H.; Jonsdottir, H.; Sveinbjornsdottir, S. Prevalence study of primary dystonia in Iceland. Mov. Disord. 2006, 21, 293–298. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.20674
  47. Joensen, P. High prevalence of primary focal dystonia in the Faroe Islands. Acta Neurol. Scand. 2016, 133, 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/ane.12438
  48. Williams, L.; McGovern, E.; Kimmich, O.; Molloy, A.; Beiser, I.; Butler, J.S.; Molloy, F.; Logan, P.; Healy, D.G.; T Lynch, T. Epidemiological, clinical and genetic aspects of adult onset isolated focal dystonia in Ireland. Eur. J. Neurol. 2017, 24, 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.13133
  49. Yoshida, K. Multilingual website and cyberconsultations for oromandibular dystonia. Neurol. Int. 2018, 10, 7536. doi: 10.4081/ni.2018.7536.
  50. Yoshida, K. Computer-aided design/computer-assisted manufacture-derived needle guide for injection of botulinum toxin into the lateral pterygoid muscle in patients with oromandibular dystonia. J. Oral facial Pain Headache 2018, 32, e13–e21. doi: 10.11607/ofph.1955.
  51. Scorr, L.M.; Silver, M.R.; Hanfelt, J.; Sperin, E.; Freeman, A.; Jinnah, H.A. Factor, S.A. Pilot single-blind trial of AbobotulinumtoxinA in oromandibular dystonia. Neurotherapeutics 2018, 15, 452–458. doi: 10.1007/s13311-018-0620-9
  52. Skármeta, N.P.; Espinoza-Mellado, P.; Chana, P. Orofacial dystonia and other oromandibular movement disorders. In Dystonia, Editor, Rizk, T.M.G. IntecOpen, 2018; doi: 10.5772/intechopen.78607
  53. Yoshida, K. Botulinum neurotoxin therapy for lingual dystonia using an individualized injection method based on clinical features. Toxins 2019, 11, 51. doi: 10.3390/toxins11010051.
  54. Singer, C.; Papapetropoulos, S. A comparison of jaw-closing and jaw-opening idiopathic oromandibular dystonia. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. 2006, 12, 115–118. doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2005.07.007
  55. Rosales, R.L.; Ng, A.R.; Santos, M.M.D-D.; Fernandez, H.H. The broadening application of chemodenervation in X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism (Part II): an open-label experience with botulinum toxin-A (Dysport®) injections for oromandibular, lingual, and truncal-axial dystonias. Int. J. Neurosci.2011, 121 Suppl 1, 44–56.doi: 10.3109/00207454.2011.558260.
  56. Teive, H.A.; Kluppel, L.E.; Munhoz, R.P.; Becker, N.; Muller, P.R.; Werneck, L.C. Jaw-opening oromandibular dystonia secondary to Wilson’s disease treated with botulinum toxin type A. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr. 2012, 70, 407–409. doi: 10.1590/S0004-282X2012000600 005
  57. Jost, W. Pictorial Atlas of Botulinum Toxin Injection: Dosage, Localization, Application. 2nd ed.; Quintessence, Berlin, Germany, 2013.
  58. Moscovich, M.; Chen, Z.P.; Rodriguez, R. Successful treatment of open jaw and jaw deviation dystonia with botulinum toxin using a simple intraoral approach. J. Clin. Neurosci. 2015, 22, 594–596. doi: 10.1016/j.jocn.2014.08.027
  59. Teemul, T.A.; Patel, R.; Kanatas, A.; Carter, L.M. Management of oromandibular dystonia with botulinum A toxin: a series of cases. Br. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 2016, 54, 1080–1084. doi: 10.1016/j.bjoms.2016.06.028
  60. Page, A.D.; Siegel, L.; Jog, M. Self-Rated communication-related quality of life of individuals with oromandibular dystonia receiving botulinum toxin injections. Am. J. Speech Lang. Pathol. 2017, 26, 674–681. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  61. Bakke, M. ; Henriksen, T.; Biernat, H.B.; Dalager, T. ; Møller, E. Interdisciplinary recognizing and managing of drug-induced tardive oromandibular dystonia: two case reports. Clin. Case Rep.2018, 6, 2150–2155.doi: 10.1002/ccr3.1548
  62. Bakke, M.; Baram, S.; Dalager, T.; Biernat, H.B.; Møller, E. Oromandibular dystonia, mental distress and oro-facial dysfunction— A follow-up 8–10 years after start of treatment with botulinum toxin. Oral Rehabil. 2019, 46, 441–449. [CrossRef]
  63. Dressler, D.; Altavista, M.C.; Altenmueller, E.; Bhidayasiri, R.; Bohlega, S.; Chana, P.; Chung, T.M.; Colosimo, C.; Fheodoroff, K.; Garcia-Ruiz, PJ. et al. Consensus guidelines for botulinum toxin therapy: general algorithms and dosing tables for dystonia and spasticity. J. Neural. Transm. (Vienna).2021, 128, 321–335. doi: 10.1007/s00702-021-02312-4.Epub 2021 Feb 26.
  64. Yoshida, K.; Kaji, R.; Shibasaki, H.; Iizuka , T. Factors influencing the therapeutic effect of muscle afferent block for oromandibular dystonia and dyskinesia: implications for their distinct pathophysiology. Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 2002; 31: 499–505. doi: 10.1054/ijom.2002.0291.
  65. Yoshida, K.; Kaji, R.; Takagi, A.; Iizuka, T. Customized EMG needle insertion guide for the muscle afferent block of jaw-deviation and jaw-opening dystonias. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol. Endod. 1999, 88, 664–669. doi: 10.1016/s1079-2104(99)70006-5.
  66. Yoshida, K. Sensory trick splint as a multimodal therapy for oromandibular dystonia. J. Prosthodont. Res. 2018, 62, 239–244; doi: 10.1016/j.jpor.2017.09.004.
  67. De Meyer, M.; Vereecke, L.; Bottenberg, P.; Jacquet, W.; Sims, A.B.; Santens, P. Oral appliances in the treatment of oromandibular dystonia: a systematic review. Acta Neurol. Belg.2020, 120, 831–836. doi: 10.1007/s13760-020-01404-4.
  68. Yoshida, K. Coronoidotomy as treatment for trismus due to jaw-closing oromandibular dystonia. Mov. Disord. 2006, 21, 1028–1031; doi: 10.1002/mds.20859.
  69. Yoshida, K. Surgical intervention for oromandibular dystonia-related limited mouth opening: long-term follow-up. J. Cranio-Maxillofac. Surg. 2017, 45, 56–62; doi: 10.1016/j.jcms.2016.10.009.
  70. Yoshida, K. Mouth opening retaining appliance after coronoidotomy for the treatment of trismus: effects on pain during postoperative training and maximal extent of mouth opening. Clin. Surg. 2020, 5, 2737.
  71. Spiegel, L.L.; Ostrem, J.L.; Bledsoe, I.O. FDA approvals and consensus guidelines for botulinum toxins in the treatment of dystonia. Toxins2020, 12, 332.doi: 10.3390/toxins12050332.
  72. Jankovic, J. Botulinum toxin: State of the art. Mov. Disord. 2017, 32, 1131–1138. [CrossRef]
  73. Albrecht, P.; Jansen, A.; Lee, J.I.; Moll, M.; Ringelstein, M.; Rosenthal, D.; Bigalke, H.; Aktas, O.; Hartung, H.P.; Hefter, H. High prevalence of neutralizing antibodies after long-term botulinum neurotoxin therapy. Neurology 2019, 92, E48–E54. [CrossRef]
  74. Jankovic, J.; Schwartz, K. Response and immunoresistance to botulinum toxin injections. Neurology 1995, 45, 1743–1746. [CrossRef]
  75. Brin, M.F.; Comella, C.L.; Jankovic, J.; Lai, F.; Naumann, M.; Ahmed, F.; Brashear, A.; Chehrenama, M.; Erjanti, H.; Evatt, M.; et al. Long-term treatment with botulinum toxin type A in cervical dystonia has low immunogenicity by mouse protection assay. Mov. Disord. 2008, 23, 1353–1360. [CrossRef]
  76. Naumann, M.; Boo, L.M.; Ackerman, A.H.; Gallagher, C.J. Immunogenicity of botulinum toxins. J. Neural Transm. 2013, 120,275–290. [CrossRef]
  77. Yoshida, K. Effects of botulinum toxin type A on pain among trigeminal neuralgia, myofascial temporomandibular disorders, and oromandibular dystonia. Toxins 2021, 13, 605, https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13090605
  78.  Boyle,H.; McGwin Jr, G.; Flanagan, C.E.; Vicinanzo, M.G.; Long, J.A. High versus low concentration botulinum toxin A for benign essential blepharospasm: does dilution make a difference? Ophthalmic Plast. Reconstr. Surg.2009, 25, 81–84. doi: 10.1097/IOP.0b013e31819946c4.
  79. Jost, W.H. How Do I treat cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin by using ultrasound? Mov. Disord. Clin. Pract. 2017, 4, 647. doi: 10.1002/mdc3.12468.
  80. Fietzek, U.M.; Nene, D.; Schramm, A.; Appel-Cresswell, S.; Košutzká, Z.; Walter, U.; Wissel, J.; Berweck, S.; Chouinard, S.; Bäumer, T. The role of ultrasound for the personalized botulinum toxin treatment of cervical dystonia. Toxins2021, 13, 365.doi: 10.3390/toxins13050365.
  81. Yoshida, K. Is botulinum toxin therapy effective for bruxism? Anti-Ageng Med. 2017, 13, 394–398.
  82. Yoshida, K. Clinical application of botulinum neurotoxin for diseases in the stomatognathic system. J. Jpn. Dent. Soc. Anesthesiol. 2020, 48, 33‒40.
  83. Yoshida, K. How do I inject botulinum toxin into the lateral and medial pterygoid muscles? Mov. Disord. Clin. Pract. 2016, 4, 285. doi: 10.1002/mdc3.12460.
  84. Yoshida, K. An electromyographic study on the superior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle during mastication from the standpoint of condylar movement. J. Jpn. Prosthodont. Soc. 1992, 36, 110–120. [CrossRef]
  85. Yoshida, K. Masticatory muscle responses associated with unloading of biting force during food crushing. J. Oral Rehabil. 1998, 25, 830–837. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Yoshida, K. Clinical and phenomenological characteristics of patients with task-specific lingual dystonia: Possible association with occupation. Front. Neurol. 2017, 8, 649. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  87. Berkovitz, B.K.B. Tongue. In Gray’s Anatomy, 41st ed.; Standring, S., Ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam,The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 511–517.
  88. Blitzer, A.; Brin, M.F.; Fahn, S. Botulinum toxin injections for lingual dystonia. Laryngoscope 1991, 101, 799. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  89. Schneider, S.A.; Aggarwal, A.; Bhatt, M.; Dupont, E.; Tisch, S.; Limousin, P.; Lee, P.; Quinn, N.; Bhatia, K.P. Severe tongue protrusion dystonia Clinical syndromes and possible treatment. Neurology 2006, 67, 940–943. [CrossRef]
  90. Esper, C.D.; Freeman, A.; Factor, S.A. Lingual protrusion dystonia: Frequency, etiology and botulinum toxin therapy. Park. Relat. Disord. 2010, 16, 438–441. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  91. Nastasi, L.; Mostile, G.; Nicoletti, A.; Zappia, M.; Reggio, E.; Catania, S. Effect of botulinum toxin treatment on quality of life in patients with isolated lingual dystonia and oromandibular dystonia affecting the tongue. J. Neurol. 2016, 263, 1702–1708. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  92. Charles, P.D.; Davis, T.L.; Shannon, K.M.; Hook, M.A.; Warner, J.S. Tongue protrusion dystonia: Treatment with botulinum toxin. South Med. J. 1997, 90, 522–525. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  93. Ondo,W. Lingual dystonia following electrical injury. Mov. Disord. 1997, 12, 253. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  94. Hennings, J.M.H.; Krause, E.; Bötzel, K.; Wetter, T.C. Successful treatment of tardive lingual dystonia with botulinum toxin: Case report and review of the literature. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 32, 1167–1171. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  95. Kasravi, N.; Jog, M.S. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of lingual movement disorders. Mov. Disord. 2009, 24, 2199–2202. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Yoshida, K. Clinical characteristics of functional movement disorders in the stomatognathic system. Front. Neurol. 2020, 11: 23, doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00123.
  97. Sankhla, C.; Lai, E.C.; Jankovic, J. Peripherally induced oromandibular dystonia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 1998, 65, 722–728. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.65.5.722
  98. Raphael, K.G.; Tadinada, A.; Bradshaw, J.M.; Janal, M.N.; Sirois, D.A.; Chan, K.C.; Lurie, A.G. Osteopenic consequences of botulinum toxin injections in the masticatory muscles: A pilot study. J. Oral Rehabil. 2014, 41, 555–563. doi: 10.1111/joor.12180.
  99. Lee, H.J.; Kim, S.J.; Lee, K.J.; Yu, H.S.; Baik, H.S. Repeated injections of botulinum toxin into the masseter muscle induce bony changes in human adults: a longitudinal study. Korean J. Orthod. 2017, 47, 222–228. doi: 10.4041/kjod.2017.47.4.222.
  100. Chang, C.S.; Bergeron, L.; Yu, C.C.; Chen, P.K.; Chen, Y.R. Mandible changes evaluated by computed tomography following Botulinum Toxin A injections in square-faced patients. Aesthetic Plast. Surg. 2011, 35, 452–455. doi: 10.1007/s00266-010-9624-5.
  101. Merz, R.I.; Deakin, J.; Hawthorne, M.R. Oromandibular dystonia questionnaire (OMDQ-25): a valid and reliable instrument for measuring health-related quality of life. Clin. Otolaryngol. 2010, 35, 390–396. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-4486.2010.02194.x
  102. Simpson, D.M.; Blitzer, A.; Brashear, A.; Comella, C.; Dubinsky, R.; Hallett, M.; Jankovic, J.; Karp, B.; Ludlow, C.L.; Miyasaki, J.M. et al. Assessment: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of movement disorders (an evidence-based review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2008, 70, 1699–1706. [CrossRef]
  103. Simpson, D.M.; Hallett, M.; Ashman, E.J.; Comella, C.L.; Green, M.W.; Gronseth, G.S.; Armstrong, M.J.; Gloss, D.; Potrebic, S.; Jankovic, J. et al. Practice guideline update summary: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of blepharospasm, cervical dystonia, adult spasticity, and headache: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2016, 86, 1818–1826. [CrossRef]
  104. Albanese, A.; Asmus, F.; Bhatia, K.P.; Elia, A.E.; Elibol, B.; Filippini, G.; Gasser, T.; Krauss, J.K.; Nardocci, N.; Newton, A.; Valls-Sole, J. EFNS guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of primary dystonias. Eur, J. Neurol. 2011, 18, 5–18.
  105. France, K.; Stoopler, E.T. The American Academy of Oral Medicine Clinical Practice Statement: Oromandibular dystonia. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol.2018, 125, 283–285. doi: 10.1016/j.oooo.2018.01.023.
More
ScholarVision Creations