Drug |
Mechanism |
Trial |
Indications |
Pembrolizumab |
Anti PD-1 |
KEYNOTE-045 (second-line) KEYNOTE-052 (first-line) |
Second-line: progression during or following platinum-based chemotherapy First-line: not eligible for platinum-based chemotherapy |
Nivolumab |
Anti PD-1 |
CheckMate-275 |
Second-line: progression during or following platinum-based chemotherapy |
Avelumab |
Anti PD-L1 |
JAVELIN |
Second-line: progression during or following platinum-based chemotherapy Maintenance therapy after first line platinum-based chemotherapy |
Atezolizumab |
Anti PD-L1 |
IMvigor210 |
First-line: not eligible for cisplatin-based chemotherapy and tumors express PD-L1 ≥5% OR not eligible for any platinum-based therapy |
While the preferred treatment option for treatment-naïve patients with advanced bladder cancer is platinum-based chemotherapy, pembrolizumab and atezolizumab can also be offered in the first-line setting for patients who are cisplatin-ineligible and have PD-L1 positive expressing tumors or who are platinum ineligible
[4][14].
3. Immunotherapy Drugs in RCC
Pembrolizumab, nivolumab, avelumab, and ipilimumab are all approved for the treatment of mRCC in the first and second-line settings. Treatment selection depends on the evaluation of the patients’ risk profile and stratification. Risk is determined based on the International Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma Database Consortium (IMDC) criteria
[15][16]. In addition, Motzer et al. have developed a five-factor prognostic model that stratifies patients into low, intermediate, and high-risk groups
[17]. It is worth noting, however, that IMDC and Motzer risk stratification algorithms were developed and reported before the use of immunotherapy in frontline mRCC treatment.
Many of the regimens used to treat mRCC combine ICI agents with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitors, which have been the standard-of-care treatments for mRCC since their marketing approvals in the mid-2000s. The VEGF inhibitors approved for the treatment of mRCC are sunitinib, pazopanib, cabozantinib, axitinib, sorafenib, lenvatinib, and tivozanib
[18][19][20][21].
For patients that have been determined to have favorable-risk disease, combinations of pembrolizumab plus axitinib, pembrolizumab plus lenvatinib, nivolumab plus cabozantanib, nivolumab plus ipilimumab, and avelumab plus axitinib are approved as first-line treatment options
[22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29].
Patients with intermediate or high-risk diseases have similar treatment options when it comes to immunotherapy. Combinations of pembrolizumab plus lenvatinib or pembrolizumab plus axitinib or nivolumab plus cabozantinib or nivolumab plus ipilimumab are all approved treatment strategies in this risk class. Avelumab plus axitinib combination therapy has also recently been approved. Among these options, clinical trials with pembrolizumab plus axitinib and nivolumab plus cabozantinib have demonstrated the most significant treatment benefit for patients with non-favorable risk
[22][25][29].
4. Treatment-Related Immune-Mediated Side Effects
IrAEs are categorized clinically via the common terminology criteria for adverse events (CTCAE)
[30]. CTCAE grading ranges from 1 to 5, and lower grades indicate more mild adverse events that can be managed usually with supportive measures alone, are reversible, and patients can remain on treatment. At the other end of the spectrum, grade 5 is usually fatal toxicity. Commonly reported immune-mediated events across the ICIs discussed above can be categorized into systemic effects, dermatitis, enterocolitis, endocrinopathies, and arthritis
[31]. Each side effect presents at varying frequency and severity depending on the specific ICI, combination with other anti-tumor agents, length of treatment, and treatment population. The common symptoms are fatigue, pruritus, rash, diarrhea, and joint pain.
In patients with locally advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma on ICI monotherapies, Grade 1 or 2 diarrhea per CTCAE is seen in 7% on nivolumab, 8.4% on durvalumab, 9.0% on pembrolizumab, 16.6% on avelumab, and 12% on atezolizumab
[3][4][13][14]. In the same patient population, these rates significantly increased in combination therapies where Grade 1 or 2 diarrhea was seen in 23.1% and 32.6% on nivolumab and ipilimumab. However, these therapies provided superior efficacy
[3].
The frequency of Grade 1 or 2 events differs significantly in metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) patients on monotherapy with 18% seen on nivolumab, 13.9% on pembrolizumab, 12.9% on avelumab, and 11% on atezolizumab
[32][33][34][35]. Conversely, rates are nearly equal for those on ICI combination regimens with 27% on nivolumab and ipilimumab
[26].
Some serious but rare irAEs, such as pneumonitis, occur with both anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-1 agents in a small minority of patients but can quickly become life-threatening. The combination of these therapies increases the likelihood, demonstrated by the 2% incidence on nivolumab and ipilimumab compared with <1% on nivolumab, 1% on ipilimumab, and 1% on pembrolizumab
[3][36][37]. Pulmonary co-morbidities are significant indicators of this event.