Fruits vinegar (FsV) is a healthy drink wealthy in bioactive compounds that provide several beneficial properties. It contains a cocktail of bioactive ingredients including polyphenolic acids, organic acids, tetramethylperazine, and melanoidins. Acetic acid is the most abundant organic acid and chlorogenic acid is the major phenol in apple vinegar. The administration of fruits vinegar could prevent diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, oxidative stress, cancer, and boost immunity as well as provide a remarkable antioxidant ability.
Variety | Country | Method of Vinegarmaking | Methods | Bioactive Compounds Identified | References |
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Vinegars | Country | K | Na | Ca | Zn | Mg | Fe | P | Ni | Cr | Co | Mn | Reference | |||||
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Grape vinegar | Turkey | Artisanal and industrial | HPLC-DAD | Gallic acid (16.36–18.23 mg/L), catechin (13.76–27.50 mg/L), epicatechin (4.96–8.20 mg/L), caffeic acid (6.30–10.30 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (0.16–3.73 mg/L), syringic acid (0.33–0.70 mg/L), | ||||||||||||||
Banana vinegar | Romania | p | --coumaric acid (0.23–0.56 mg/L), and ferulic acid (0.06–0.35 mg/L) | 14.69–186.06[4] | ||||||||||||||
11.89–148.94 | 0.569–3.61 | 7.12–113.31 | - | - | 0.07–0.15 | 0.04–3.63 | Grape vinegar | Industrial | HPLC-PDA | Gallic acid (6 ± 2 mg/100 mL) and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (0.90 ± 0.05 mg/100 mL) | [7] | |||||||
Apple vinegar | Gallic acid (0.8 ± 0.04 mg/100 mL), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (0.2 ± 0.1 mg/100 mL), catechin (2.4 ± 0.1 mg/100 mL), syringic acid (0.12 ± 0.02 mg/100 mL), caffeic acid (0.40 ± 0.01 mg/100 mL), and p-coumaric acid (0.08 ± 0.01 mg/100 mL) | |||||||||||||||||
0.01–0.02 | 0.09–4.01 | [ | 82 | ] | ||||||||||||||
Apple vinegar | Turkey | 802.24 ± 114 | 360.21 ± 250.380 | 104.75 ± 28.695 | ND | 65.60 ± 7.565 | 1.31 ± 0.585 | 48.06 ± 17.044 | 0.01 ± 0.013 | - | - | 0.18 ± 0.130 | [79] | |||||
Rice vinegar | 0.43 ± 0.056 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.62 ± 0.103 | 0.22 ± 0.020 | 0.01 ± 0.003 | - | - | 0.22 ± 0.011 | Apple vinegar | Artisanal | HPLC-DAD | Gallic acid (61.24 ± 2.21 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (347.70 ± 31.94 mg/L), catechin (68.20 mg/L), and caffeic acid (17.21 ± 0.33 mg/L) | [28] | ||
Sour cherry vinegar | 1058.93 ± 103.502 | 303.20 ± 38.562 | 670.80 ± 30.811 | 0.32 ± 0.013 | 142.60 ± 46.11 | 10.68 ± 0.591 | 63.14 ± 11.078 | 0.12 ± 0.008 | - | - | Pomegranate vinegar | Gallic acid (67.80 ± 2.88 mg/L), catechin (47 ± 1.10 mg/L), and caffeic acid (13.41 ± 0.60 mg/L) | ||||||
0.67 ± 0.009 | ||||||||||||||||||
Date vinegar | 1384.93 ± 132.745 | 181.40 ± 25.787 | 1136 ± 105.112 | 0.02 ± 0.024 | 195.60 ± 22.235 | 10.44 ± 2.526 | 70.32 ± 36.123 | 0.16 ± 0.008 | - | - | 0.28 ± 0.018 | Aromatic vinegar * | China | Artisanal | HPLC | |||
Balsamic vinegar | Gallic acid, | p | -hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, ethyl gallate, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, and rutin. | [ | 1557.73 ± 416.84129] | |||||||||||||
264.96 ± 26.766 | 188.28 ± 46.997 | 0.36 ± 0.162 | 127.04 ± 18.470 | 6.94 ± 1.498 | 182.60 ± 50.577 | 0.03 ± 0.019 | - | - | 1.31 ± 0.180 | Grape vinegar | Turkey | Industrial | LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS | Gallic acid (7.45–21.84 mg/L), tyrosol (11.54–17.68 mg/L), protocatechuic acid (7.21–11.05 mg/L), caftaric acid (1.76–15.83 mg/L), cholorogenic acid (0.09–1.77 mg/L), coutaric acid (0–1.95 mg/L) | ||||
Apple vinegar | Morocco | caffeic acid (0.11–2.58 mg/L), ferulic acid (0.01–0.21 mg/L), fertaric acid (0.03–0.83 mg/L), vanilic acid (0–2.58 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.02–0.45 mg/L), syringic acid (1.24–9.04 mg/L), procyanidin B2 (0.09–3.11 mg/L), catechin (3.73–27.11 mg/L), epicatechin (0.57–15.13 mg/L), quercetin-3-O-galactoside (0.04–0.39 mg/L), kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (0–0.04 mg/L), rutin (0.02–0.20 mg/L), isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside (0.05–0.09 mg/L), and quercetin (0.06–0.69 mg/L). | [8] | |||||||||||||||
32.403–41.863 | 0.039–0.199 | 1.569–2.620 | 0.014–4.212 | 1.572–1.746 | 0.499–0.581 | - | - | - | - | 0.045–0.053 | [78] | Apple vinegar | Gallic acid (0.47–2.57 mg/L), protocatechuic acid (1.15–6.35 mg/L), cholorogenic acid (2.96–16.29 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.19–1.77 mg/L), vanilic acid (0.63–3.42 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.13–0.81 mg/L), procyanidin B2 (0.12–1.35 mg/L), catechin (0.14–0.95 mg/L), epicatechin (0.04–1.36 mg/L), luteolin-3-O-rutinoside (0.30–1.98 mg/L), isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (0.10–0.63 mg/L), isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside (0.08–0.48 mg/L), kaempferol-3-O-glucoside (0.03–0.20 mg/L), quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (0.20–3.41 mg/L), quercetin (0.20–1.41 mg/L), rutin (0.04–0.29 mg/L), luteolin (0.27–1.63 mg/L), apigenin0.02–0.13 mg/L), phloretin (0.59–7.86 mg/L), and phloridzin (7.64–44.35 mg/L). | |||||
Date vinegar | Algeria | 0.14–2.73 | 23.6–30.9 | 0.24–0.79 | - | 0.16–1.92 | 0.22–1.74 | - | - | - | - | - | [83] | Apple vinegar | Japan | Industrial | LC-MS | Chlorogenic acid (3.1–19.6 mg/100 mL), 4- |
Date vinegar | p | -coumaric acid (0–0.21 mg/100 mL), isomer of | Iraqp-coumaroyquinic acid (0–1.3 mg/100 mL), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (2.7–4.1 mg/100 mL), protocatechic acid (0–0.41 mg/100 mL), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (0–0.77 mg/100 mL), caffeic acid (0–0.76 mg/100 mL), isomer of chlorogenic acid (0–3.1 mg/100 mL), and p-coumaric acid (0–0.21 mg/100 mL) | [30] | ||||||||||||||
1958 | 148 | 293 | 1.29 | 50 | 1.15 | - | - | - | 0.069 | 0.49 | Persimmon vinegar | China | Artisanal | HPLC | Gallic acid (22.91 ± 1.22 mg/L), (+/−)-catechin hydrate (0.16 ± 0.89 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (0.06 ± 0.12 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.04 ± 0.06 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.03 ± 0.21 mg/L), trans-ferulic acid (0.02 ± 0.11 mg/L), (-)-epicatechin gallate (0.13 ± 0.09 mg/L), and phloridzin (0.38 ± 0.12 mg/L) | [31] | ||
[ | 31 | ] | ||||||||||||||||
Wood vinegar | China | 7.66 ± 0.80 | - | 13 ± 0.78 | 0.166 ± 0.16 | 1.98 ± 0.34 | 3751 ± 60 | - | - | - | - | 23.7 ± 0.43 | Apple vinegar | Gallic acid (0.35 ± 0.02 mg/L), vanillic acid (0.06 ± 0.04 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (6.56 ± 0.43 mg/L), caffeic acid (3.03 ± 0.02 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.33 ± 0.28 mg/L), trans-ferulic acid (0.24 ± 0.07 mg/L), (-)-epicatechin gallate (0.77 ± 0.34), and phloridzin (1.76 ± 0.34 mg/L). | ||||
[ | 80 | Kiwifruit vinegar | Gallic acid (9.67 ± 0.59 mg/L), (+/−)-catechin hydrate (1.47 ± 0.34 mg/L), vanillic acid (1.77 ± 0.23 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (3.12 ± 0.21 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.04 ± 0.05 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.34 ± 0.01 mg/L), trans-ferulic acid (0.01 ± 0.03 mg/L), and phloridzin (0.49 ± 0.02 mg/L) | |||||||||||||||
Apple vinegar | Brazil | Industrial | HPLC-PDA | Phloretin-2′-β-d-glucoside (4.81–15.55 mg/L), 5-caffeoylquinic acid (20.62–26.85 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.51–3.87 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (1.16–2.03 mg/L), quercetin-3-rutinoside (2.69–4.65 mg/L), quercetin-3-d-galactoside (0.73–9.75 mg/L), quercetin-3-β-d-glucoside (1.58–3.45 mg/L), quercetin-3-d-xyloside (1.62–2.54 mg/L), quercetin-O-α-l-arabinofuranoside (0.85–1.34 mg/L), and quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (1.13–3.37 mg/L). | [32] | |||||||||||||
] | Apple vinegar | China | Industrial | HPLC-PDA | Chlorogenic acid (0.11–10.91 µg/mL), protocatechuic acid (0.08–1.54 µg/mL), and p-coumaric acid (0.10–0.17 µg/mL | [5] | ||||||||||||
Red wine vinegar | Gallic acid (4.10–9.99 µg/mL), protocatechuic acid (0.47–1.38 µg/mL), p-coumaric acid (0.81–1.39 µg/mL), and caffeic acid (1.48–1.73 µg/mL) | |||||||||||||||||
White wine vinegar | Protocatechuic acid (0.16–0.32 µg/mL), p-coumaric acid (0–0.18 µg/mL), caffeic acid (0–0.32 µg/mL), and ferulic acid (0–0.31 µg/mL) | |||||||||||||||||
Balsamic vinegar | Gallic acid (7.50–12.56 µg/mL), protocatechuic acid (0–3.29 µg/mL), p-coumaric acid (1.17–1.97 µg/mL), and caffeic acid (0–3.58 µg/mL) | |||||||||||||||||
Sour cherry vinegar | Turkey | Industrial | HPLC | Gallic acid (160–170 mg/mL), chlorogenic acid (45–55 mg/mL), p-coumaric acid (17–23 mg/mL), caffeic acid (3.5–4 mg/mL), ferulic acid (1.3–4.6 mg/mL), catechin (0.7–1 mg/mL), and epicatechin (1.7–3.5 mg/mL) | [33] | |||||||||||||
Palm vinegar | Thailand | Artisanal | LC-MS | Gallic acid (14.14 ± 0.07 µg/mL), catechin (8.61 ± 0.32 µg/mL), rutin (6.67 ± 0.03 µg/mL), isoquercetin (11.27 ± 0.12 µg/mL), and quercetin (10.33 ± 0.16 µg/mL) | [34] | |||||||||||||
Brow beer vinegar | Italy | Industrial | HPLC-DAD-ESI(+)-MS | Protocatechuic acid O-glucoside (7.42 ± 0.03 mg/L), 3-caffeoylquinic acid (40.01 ± 1.13 mg/L), (4-Hydroxyphenyl) acetic acid (11.84 ± 0.02 mg/L), 4-vinylguaiacol (10.22 ± 0.04 mg/L), Catechin 7 O-glucoside (8.84 ± 0.02 mg/L), 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (38.23 ± 0.05 mg/L), (3-hydroxyphenyl)acetic acid (18.95 ± 0.04 mg/L), catechin 5 O-glucoside (7.24 ± 0.06 mg/L), coumaric acid O-glucoside (4.90 ± 0.05 mg/L), cerulic acid O-glucoside (4.33 ± 0.02 mg/L), gallic acid (5.72 ± 0.04 mg/L), vanilic acid O-glucoside (10.25 ± 0.03 mg/L), gallocatechin (7.66 ± 0.10 mg/L), sinapic acid O-glucoside (14.03 ± 0.12 mg/L), catechin O-diglucoside (8.41 ± 0.04 mg/L), kaempferol O-glucoside (6.28 ± 0.04 mg/L), feruloylquinic acid (6.60 ± 0.15 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (18.30 ± 0.02 mg/L), (+)-catechin (7.89 ± 0.04 mg/L), (−)-epicatechin (7.78 ± 0.12 mg/L), caffeic acid (10.58 ± 0.08 mg/L), sinapic acid (15.5 ± 0.06 mg/L), apigenin O-glucoside (6.15 ± 0.02 mg/L), quercetin O-glucoside (7.05 ± 0.06 mg/L), cohumulone I (4.44 ± 0.02 mg/L), cohumulone II (6.58 ± 0.10 mg/L), 8-prenylnaringenin (2.33 ± 0.02 mg/L), 6-prenylnaringenin (1.86 ± 0.02 mg/L), humulone (5.62 ± 0.08 mg/L), and isohumulone (4.14 ± 0.03 mg/L) | [35] | |||||||||||||
Pineapple vinegar | Industrial | UHPLC-QTOF-MS | Catechol, peonidin, (+)-catechin 3-O-gallate, m-coumaric acid, 7,3’,4’-trihydroxyflavone, 4-vinylsyringol, ferulic acid, mullein, genistin, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylglycol, 4-ethylcatechol, 6-prenylnaringenin, gallic acid, kaempferol 3-O-xylosyl-glucoside, 6,8-Dihydroxykaempferol, spinacetin 3-O-glucosyl-(1-6)-[apiosyl(1-2)]-glucoside, and malvidin 3-O-arabinoside | [36] | ||||||||||||||
Cherry vinegar | Spain | Industrial | UPLC-DAD | Gallic acid (2.08–2.99 mg/L), HMF (6.96–9.48 mg/L), protocatechuic acid (2.12–2.43 mg/L), caftaric acid (2.05–2.81 mg/L), furoic acid (2.46–16.53 mg/L), protocatechualdehyde (0.046–0.263 mg/L), cis-p-Coutaric acid (1.83–2.25 mg/L), trans-p-Coutaric acid (1.15–1.55 mg/L), tyrosol (24.6–28.9 mg/L), catequin (0.165–0.334 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.184–0.308 mg/L), vanillic acid (2.66–3.44 mg/L), syringic acid (2.16–5.44 mg/L), vanillin (1.05–2.97 mg/L), cis-p-coumaric acid (0.174–0.481 mg/L), syringaldehyde (0.50–5.12 mg/L), coniferyl aldehyde (0.959–2.85 mg/L), and sinapaldehyde (16.1–19.1 mg/L) | [37] | |||||||||||||
Sugarcane vinegar | China | Industrial | UPLC-MS | Benzoic acid (1.027 ± 0.07 mg/L), ferulic acid (1.1240.063 mg/L), quinic acid (0.031 ± 0.002 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (1.217 ± 0.063 mg/L), apigenin (0.004 ± 0 mg/L), kaempferol (0.003 ± 0.0001 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.005 ± 0.0001 mg/L), luteolin (0.005 ± 0.0001 mg/L), and p-coumaric acid (0.027 ± 0.0001 mg/L) | [38] | |||||||||||||
Citrus vinegar | Italy | Industrial | UPLC-UV | Gallic acid (2.62–5.63 mg/L), neochlorogenic acid (2.69–5.83 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (2.95–58.51 mg/L), vanillic acid (0.47–3.64 mg/L), caffeic acid (1.39–3.64 mg/L), epicatechin (0–2.91 mg/L), procyanidin (0–9.43 mg/L), rutin (1.76–146.3 mg/L), quercetin (0.23–8.62 mg/L), eriocitrin (0.27–13.20 mg/L), neoeriocitrin (53.41–513.30 mg/L), narirutin (3.05–18.24 mg/L), naringin (61.19–700.56 mg/L), hesperidin (12.15–92.12 mg/L), neohesperidin (63.51–366.93 mg/L), didymin (1.73–9.82 mg/L), and hesperetin (0–15.54 mg/L) | [39] |
Investigations of the antihyperglycemic activity of FsV were started in the late 80s. In fact, the research conducted by [87][43] has demonstrated that the co-administration of 2% acetic acid with meals (starch intake) decreased significantly glycemia. Subsequently, multiple studies also found that the administration of apple vinegar reduced blood glucose levels. This effect may be due in part to the stimulation of glucose uptake and enhancement of the action of insulin in skeletal muscle [63][44]. These beneficial effects have been attributed to acetic acid which acts via MAPK pathway (Figure 1).
Vinegar is used in traditional medicine to treat dyslipidemia, which promotes the development of cardiovascular diseases [91][48]. The administration of apple vinegar during 8 weeks ameliorates lipid profile (cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and triglycerides) [91][48]. Additionally, mice fed with a hyper-fat diet and treated with synthetic acetic acid vinegar or nipa vinegar reduced total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL, and leptin levels [92][49].