Encyclopedia
Please note this is a comparison between Version 1 by Hamza Mechchate and Version 2 by Lindsay Dong.
Fruits vinegar (FsV) is a healthy drink wealthy in bioactive compounds that provide several beneficial properties. It contains a cocktail of bioactive ingredients including polyphenolic acids, organic acids, tetramethylperazine, and melanoidins. Acetic acid is the most abundant organic acid and chlorogenic acid is the major phenol in apple vinegar. The administration of fruits vinegar could prevent diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, oxidative stress, cancer, and boost immunity as well as provide a remarkable antioxidant ability.
- fruits vinegar
- bioactive compounds
1. Introduction
Fruits vinegar (FsV) is a popular natural product with multiple use purposes. It is remarkably appreciated and included in many people’s daily diet [1][2][3][1,2,3]. Fruits fermentation produces a bio liquid that contains several functional molecules [4][5][4,5] such as organic acids [5][6][5,6], polyphenols [7][8][7,8], melanoidins [9][10][9,10], and tetramethylpyrazine [11][12][11,12]. The production technique used has an impact on the quality of vinegar, while the vinegar-making process plays an important role in the removal and/or formation of new components. The traditional technique promotes the development of aroma and flavor due to the slow process of production [4][13][14][4,13,14].
Polyphenols and organic acids, mainly acetic acid, plays an important role in the beneficial properties provided by fruits vinegar [15]. Previously, it is shown that the administration of apple vinegar curbs the installation of hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia induced by hypercaloric fed enriched in d-glucose in male and female rats [16]. Clinical studies demonstrated that apple vinegar regulates gene expression via the Mitogrn-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathway [17][18][19][17,18,19], and control blood glucose and lipids levels [19]. Interestingly, it contains a wide range of functional substances that exert their effects in synergy [3][20][21][3,20,21]. This review aimed to itemize the chemical composition of FsV and its therapeutics application scientifically proved.
2. Chemical Characteristics of FsV
FsV has been the subject of numerous research studies during the last decades. Recently, studies are being carried out to determine and identify the phenolic composition of vinegar (Table 12). The nature and quantity of bioactive compounds present in vinegar are closely linked to the raw matter used to produce vinegar, the technique selected to produce vinegar, and the nature of microorganisms involved in the fermentation process [9][22][23][9,38,39]. The active molecules naturally present or new generated not only confer organoleptic properties such as astringency, taste, and color parameters [24][25][40,41]. Bioactive ingredients of vinegar play also an important role in the prevention and treatment of different human ailments [3][9][26][27][3,9,22,42].Table 1. Phytochemical profile of fruits vinegar.
| Variety | Country | Method of Vinegarmaking | Methods | Bioactive Compounds Identified | References |
|---|
* Vinegar mixed with other aromatic plants.
Table 4. Mineral composition of FsV (mg/L).
| Vinegars | Country | K | Na | Ca | Zn | Mg | Fe | P | Ni | Cr | Co | Mn | Reference | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grape vinegar | Turkey | Artisanal and industrial | HPLC-DAD | Gallic acid (16.36–18.23 mg/L), catechin (13.76–27.50 mg/L), epicatechin (4.96–8.20 mg/L), caffeic acid (6.30–10.30 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (0.16–3.73 mg/L), syringic acid (0.33–0.70 mg/L), | ||||||||||||||
| Banana vinegar | Romania | p | --coumaric acid (0.23–0.56 mg/L), and ferulic acid (0.06–0.35 mg/L) | 14.69–186.06[4] | ||||||||||||||
| 11.89–148.94 | 0.569–3.61 | 7.12–113.31 | - | - | 0.07–0.15 | 0.04–3.63 | Grape vinegar | Industrial | HPLC-PDA | Gallic acid (6 ± 2 mg/100 mL) and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (0.90 ± 0.05 mg/100 mL) | [7] | |||||||
| Apple vinegar | Gallic acid (0.8 ± 0.04 mg/100 mL), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (0.2 ± 0.1 mg/100 mL), catechin (2.4 ± 0.1 mg/100 mL), syringic acid (0.12 ± 0.02 mg/100 mL), caffeic acid (0.40 ± 0.01 mg/100 mL), and p-coumaric acid (0.08 ± 0.01 mg/100 mL) | |||||||||||||||||
| 0.01–0.02 | 0.09–4.01 | [ | 82 | ] | ||||||||||||||
| Apple vinegar | Turkey | 802.24 ± 114 | 360.21 ± 250.380 | 104.75 ± 28.695 | ND | 65.60 ± 7.565 | 1.31 ± 0.585 | 48.06 ± 17.044 | 0.01 ± 0.013 | - | - | 0.18 ± 0.130 | [79] | |||||
| Rice vinegar | 0.43 ± 0.056 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.62 ± 0.103 | 0.22 ± 0.020 | 0.01 ± 0.003 | - | - | 0.22 ± 0.011 | Apple vinegar | Artisanal | HPLC-DAD | Gallic acid (61.24 ± 2.21 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (347.70 ± 31.94 mg/L), catechin (68.20 mg/L), and caffeic acid (17.21 ± 0.33 mg/L) | [28] | ||
| Sour cherry vinegar | 1058.93 ± 103.502 | 303.20 ± 38.562 | 670.80 ± 30.811 | 0.32 ± 0.013 | 142.60 ± 46.11 | 10.68 ± 0.591 | 63.14 ± 11.078 | 0.12 ± 0.008 | - | - | Pomegranate vinegar | Gallic acid (67.80 ± 2.88 mg/L), catechin (47 ± 1.10 mg/L), and caffeic acid (13.41 ± 0.60 mg/L) | ||||||
| 0.67 ± 0.009 | ||||||||||||||||||
| Date vinegar | 1384.93 ± 132.745 | 181.40 ± 25.787 | 1136 ± 105.112 | 0.02 ± 0.024 | 195.60 ± 22.235 | 10.44 ± 2.526 | 70.32 ± 36.123 | 0.16 ± 0.008 | - | - | 0.28 ± 0.018 | Aromatic vinegar * | China | Artisanal | HPLC | |||
| Balsamic vinegar | Gallic acid, | p | -hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, ethyl gallate, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, and rutin. | [ | 1557.73 ± 416.84129] | |||||||||||||
| 264.96 ± 26.766 | 188.28 ± 46.997 | 0.36 ± 0.162 | 127.04 ± 18.470 | 6.94 ± 1.498 | 182.60 ± 50.577 | 0.03 ± 0.019 | - | - | 1.31 ± 0.180 | Grape vinegar | Turkey | Industrial | LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS | Gallic acid (7.45–21.84 mg/L), tyrosol (11.54–17.68 mg/L), protocatechuic acid (7.21–11.05 mg/L), caftaric acid (1.76–15.83 mg/L), cholorogenic acid (0.09–1.77 mg/L), coutaric acid (0–1.95 mg/L) | ||||
| Apple vinegar | Morocco | caffeic acid (0.11–2.58 mg/L), ferulic acid (0.01–0.21 mg/L), fertaric acid (0.03–0.83 mg/L), vanilic acid (0–2.58 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.02–0.45 mg/L), syringic acid (1.24–9.04 mg/L), procyanidin B2 (0.09–3.11 mg/L), catechin (3.73–27.11 mg/L), epicatechin (0.57–15.13 mg/L), quercetin-3-O-galactoside (0.04–0.39 mg/L), kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (0–0.04 mg/L), rutin (0.02–0.20 mg/L), isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside (0.05–0.09 mg/L), and quercetin (0.06–0.69 mg/L). | [8] | |||||||||||||||
| 32.403–41.863 | 0.039–0.199 | 1.569–2.620 | 0.014–4.212 | 1.572–1.746 | 0.499–0.581 | - | - | - | - | 0.045–0.053 | [78] | Apple vinegar | Gallic acid (0.47–2.57 mg/L), protocatechuic acid (1.15–6.35 mg/L), cholorogenic acid (2.96–16.29 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.19–1.77 mg/L), vanilic acid (0.63–3.42 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.13–0.81 mg/L), procyanidin B2 (0.12–1.35 mg/L), catechin (0.14–0.95 mg/L), epicatechin (0.04–1.36 mg/L), luteolin-3-O-rutinoside (0.30–1.98 mg/L), isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (0.10–0.63 mg/L), isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside (0.08–0.48 mg/L), kaempferol-3-O-glucoside (0.03–0.20 mg/L), quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (0.20–3.41 mg/L), quercetin (0.20–1.41 mg/L), rutin (0.04–0.29 mg/L), luteolin (0.27–1.63 mg/L), apigenin0.02–0.13 mg/L), phloretin (0.59–7.86 mg/L), and phloridzin (7.64–44.35 mg/L). | |||||
| Date vinegar | Algeria | 0.14–2.73 | 23.6–30.9 | 0.24–0.79 | - | 0.16–1.92 | 0.22–1.74 | - | - | - | - | - | [83] | Apple vinegar | Japan | Industrial | LC-MS | Chlorogenic acid (3.1–19.6 mg/100 mL), 4- |
| Date vinegar | p | -coumaric acid (0–0.21 mg/100 mL), isomer of | Iraqp-coumaroyquinic acid (0–1.3 mg/100 mL), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (2.7–4.1 mg/100 mL), protocatechic acid (0–0.41 mg/100 mL), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (0–0.77 mg/100 mL), caffeic acid (0–0.76 mg/100 mL), isomer of chlorogenic acid (0–3.1 mg/100 mL), and p-coumaric acid (0–0.21 mg/100 mL) | [30] | ||||||||||||||
| 1958 | 148 | 293 | 1.29 | 50 | 1.15 | - | - | - | 0.069 | 0.49 | Persimmon vinegar | China | Artisanal | HPLC | Gallic acid (22.91 ± 1.22 mg/L), (+/−)-catechin hydrate (0.16 ± 0.89 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (0.06 ± 0.12 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.04 ± 0.06 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.03 ± 0.21 mg/L), trans-ferulic acid (0.02 ± 0.11 mg/L), (-)-epicatechin gallate (0.13 ± 0.09 mg/L), and phloridzin (0.38 ± 0.12 mg/L) | [31] | ||
| [ | 31 | ] | ||||||||||||||||
| Wood vinegar | China | 7.66 ± 0.80 | - | 13 ± 0.78 | 0.166 ± 0.16 | 1.98 ± 0.34 | 3751 ± 60 | - | - | - | - | 23.7 ± 0.43 | Apple vinegar | Gallic acid (0.35 ± 0.02 mg/L), vanillic acid (0.06 ± 0.04 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (6.56 ± 0.43 mg/L), caffeic acid (3.03 ± 0.02 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.33 ± 0.28 mg/L), trans-ferulic acid (0.24 ± 0.07 mg/L), (-)-epicatechin gallate (0.77 ± 0.34), and phloridzin (1.76 ± 0.34 mg/L). | ||||
| [ | 80 | Kiwifruit vinegar | Gallic acid (9.67 ± 0.59 mg/L), (+/−)-catechin hydrate (1.47 ± 0.34 mg/L), vanillic acid (1.77 ± 0.23 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (3.12 ± 0.21 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.04 ± 0.05 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (0.34 ± 0.01 mg/L), trans-ferulic acid (0.01 ± 0.03 mg/L), and phloridzin (0.49 ± 0.02 mg/L) | |||||||||||||||
| Apple vinegar | Brazil | Industrial | HPLC-PDA | Phloretin-2′-β-d-glucoside (4.81–15.55 mg/L), 5-caffeoylquinic acid (20.62–26.85 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.51–3.87 mg/L), p-coumaric acid (1.16–2.03 mg/L), quercetin-3-rutinoside (2.69–4.65 mg/L), quercetin-3-d-galactoside (0.73–9.75 mg/L), quercetin-3-β-d-glucoside (1.58–3.45 mg/L), quercetin-3-d-xyloside (1.62–2.54 mg/L), quercetin-O-α-l-arabinofuranoside (0.85–1.34 mg/L), and quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (1.13–3.37 mg/L). | [32] | |||||||||||||
| ] | Apple vinegar | China | Industrial | HPLC-PDA | Chlorogenic acid (0.11–10.91 µg/mL), protocatechuic acid (0.08–1.54 µg/mL), and p-coumaric acid (0.10–0.17 µg/mL | [5] | ||||||||||||
| Red wine vinegar | Gallic acid (4.10–9.99 µg/mL), protocatechuic acid (0.47–1.38 µg/mL), p-coumaric acid (0.81–1.39 µg/mL), and caffeic acid (1.48–1.73 µg/mL) | |||||||||||||||||
| White wine vinegar | Protocatechuic acid (0.16–0.32 µg/mL), p-coumaric acid (0–0.18 µg/mL), caffeic acid (0–0.32 µg/mL), and ferulic acid (0–0.31 µg/mL) | |||||||||||||||||
| Balsamic vinegar | Gallic acid (7.50–12.56 µg/mL), protocatechuic acid (0–3.29 µg/mL), p-coumaric acid (1.17–1.97 µg/mL), and caffeic acid (0–3.58 µg/mL) | |||||||||||||||||
| Sour cherry vinegar | Turkey | Industrial | HPLC | Gallic acid (160–170 mg/mL), chlorogenic acid (45–55 mg/mL), p-coumaric acid (17–23 mg/mL), caffeic acid (3.5–4 mg/mL), ferulic acid (1.3–4.6 mg/mL), catechin (0.7–1 mg/mL), and epicatechin (1.7–3.5 mg/mL) | [33] | |||||||||||||
| Palm vinegar | Thailand | Artisanal | LC-MS | Gallic acid (14.14 ± 0.07 µg/mL), catechin (8.61 ± 0.32 µg/mL), rutin (6.67 ± 0.03 µg/mL), isoquercetin (11.27 ± 0.12 µg/mL), and quercetin (10.33 ± 0.16 µg/mL) | [34] | |||||||||||||
| Brow beer vinegar | Italy | Industrial | HPLC-DAD-ESI(+)-MS | Protocatechuic acid O-glucoside (7.42 ± 0.03 mg/L), 3-caffeoylquinic acid (40.01 ± 1.13 mg/L), (4-Hydroxyphenyl) acetic acid (11.84 ± 0.02 mg/L), 4-vinylguaiacol (10.22 ± 0.04 mg/L), Catechin 7 O-glucoside (8.84 ± 0.02 mg/L), 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (38.23 ± 0.05 mg/L), (3-hydroxyphenyl)acetic acid (18.95 ± 0.04 mg/L), catechin 5 O-glucoside (7.24 ± 0.06 mg/L), coumaric acid O-glucoside (4.90 ± 0.05 mg/L), cerulic acid O-glucoside (4.33 ± 0.02 mg/L), gallic acid (5.72 ± 0.04 mg/L), vanilic acid O-glucoside (10.25 ± 0.03 mg/L), gallocatechin (7.66 ± 0.10 mg/L), sinapic acid O-glucoside (14.03 ± 0.12 mg/L), catechin O-diglucoside (8.41 ± 0.04 mg/L), kaempferol O-glucoside (6.28 ± 0.04 mg/L), feruloylquinic acid (6.60 ± 0.15 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (18.30 ± 0.02 mg/L), (+)-catechin (7.89 ± 0.04 mg/L), (−)-epicatechin (7.78 ± 0.12 mg/L), caffeic acid (10.58 ± 0.08 mg/L), sinapic acid (15.5 ± 0.06 mg/L), apigenin O-glucoside (6.15 ± 0.02 mg/L), quercetin O-glucoside (7.05 ± 0.06 mg/L), cohumulone I (4.44 ± 0.02 mg/L), cohumulone II (6.58 ± 0.10 mg/L), 8-prenylnaringenin (2.33 ± 0.02 mg/L), 6-prenylnaringenin (1.86 ± 0.02 mg/L), humulone (5.62 ± 0.08 mg/L), and isohumulone (4.14 ± 0.03 mg/L) | [35] | |||||||||||||
| Pineapple vinegar | Industrial | UHPLC-QTOF-MS | Catechol, peonidin, (+)-catechin 3-O-gallate, m-coumaric acid, 7,3’,4’-trihydroxyflavone, 4-vinylsyringol, ferulic acid, mullein, genistin, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylglycol, 4-ethylcatechol, 6-prenylnaringenin, gallic acid, kaempferol 3-O-xylosyl-glucoside, 6,8-Dihydroxykaempferol, spinacetin 3-O-glucosyl-(1-6)-[apiosyl(1-2)]-glucoside, and malvidin 3-O-arabinoside | [36] | ||||||||||||||
| Cherry vinegar | Spain | Industrial | UPLC-DAD | Gallic acid (2.08–2.99 mg/L), HMF (6.96–9.48 mg/L), protocatechuic acid (2.12–2.43 mg/L), caftaric acid (2.05–2.81 mg/L), furoic acid (2.46–16.53 mg/L), protocatechualdehyde (0.046–0.263 mg/L), cis-p-Coutaric acid (1.83–2.25 mg/L), trans-p-Coutaric acid (1.15–1.55 mg/L), tyrosol (24.6–28.9 mg/L), catequin (0.165–0.334 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.184–0.308 mg/L), vanillic acid (2.66–3.44 mg/L), syringic acid (2.16–5.44 mg/L), vanillin (1.05–2.97 mg/L), cis-p-coumaric acid (0.174–0.481 mg/L), syringaldehyde (0.50–5.12 mg/L), coniferyl aldehyde (0.959–2.85 mg/L), and sinapaldehyde (16.1–19.1 mg/L) | [37] | |||||||||||||
| Sugarcane vinegar | China | Industrial | UPLC-MS | Benzoic acid (1.027 ± 0.07 mg/L), ferulic acid (1.1240.063 mg/L), quinic acid (0.031 ± 0.002 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (1.217 ± 0.063 mg/L), apigenin (0.004 ± 0 mg/L), kaempferol (0.003 ± 0.0001 mg/L), caffeic acid (0.005 ± 0.0001 mg/L), luteolin (0.005 ± 0.0001 mg/L), and p-coumaric acid (0.027 ± 0.0001 mg/L) | [38] | |||||||||||||
| Citrus vinegar | Italy | Industrial | UPLC-UV | Gallic acid (2.62–5.63 mg/L), neochlorogenic acid (2.69–5.83 mg/L), chlorogenic acid (2.95–58.51 mg/L), vanillic acid (0.47–3.64 mg/L), caffeic acid (1.39–3.64 mg/L), epicatechin (0–2.91 mg/L), procyanidin (0–9.43 mg/L), rutin (1.76–146.3 mg/L), quercetin (0.23–8.62 mg/L), eriocitrin (0.27–13.20 mg/L), neoeriocitrin (53.41–513.30 mg/L), narirutin (3.05–18.24 mg/L), naringin (61.19–700.56 mg/L), hesperidin (12.15–92.12 mg/L), neohesperidin (63.51–366.93 mg/L), didymin (1.73–9.82 mg/L), and hesperetin (0–15.54 mg/L) | [39] |
3. Beneficial Properties of FsV
3.1. Antihyperglycemic Effect
Investigations of the antihyperglycemic activity of FsV were started in the late 80s. In fact, the research conducted by [43][87] has demonstrated that the co-administration of 2% acetic acid with meals (starch intake) decreased significantly glycemia. Subsequently, multiple studies also found that the administration of apple vinegar reduced blood glucose levels. This effect may be due in part to the stimulation of glucose uptake and enhancement of the action of insulin in skeletal muscle [44][63]. These beneficial effects have been attributed to acetic acid which acts via MAPK pathway (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Mechanism of action possible of apple vinegar on nephro-hepatic functions against hydrogen peroxide and d-glucose toxicities.
Research conducted on humans was initiated early in ancient Greece medicine, vinegar is prescribed as a remedy for several ailments [45][30]. Healthy subjects who consumed vinegar, which contains 1 g of acetic acid, combined with meals enriched with carbohydrates limited glycemic response due to its acidity without affecting gastric emptying [46][90]. Furthermore, vinegar consumption reduced the area under the insulin response curve by 20% after ingestion of sucrose, and the glycemic response was reduced by 30% [47][89]. Additionally, the ability of vinegar to stimulate glucose uptake by the forearm muscles and blood flow rates were investigated using the arteriovenous difference technique. Authors reported that the administration of vinegar decreases postprandial glycemia and improves the insulin action on skeletal muscle, which enhances glucose disposal [44][63]. Studies focused on the safety and tolerance of vinegar intake reported that vinegar consumption could induce bowel movements and flatulence.
3.2. Antihyperlipidemic Effect
Vinegar is used in traditional medicine to treat dyslipidemia, which promotes the development of cardiovascular diseases [48][91]. The administration of apple vinegar during 8 weeks ameliorates lipid profile (cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and triglycerides) [48][91]. Additionally, mice fed with a hyper-fat diet and treated with synthetic acetic acid vinegar or nipa vinegar reduced total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL, and leptin levels [49][92].
3.3. Antimicrobial Effect
Bacterial resistance poses major health threats around the world on inconceivable scales. Vinegar has been shown to have potent antibacterial activity against resistant bacteria [50][51][52][53][54][28,85,97,98,99]. Recently, Yagnik et al. studied the effect of apple vinegar on the multiplication of two resistant bacterial strains (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli resistant to cefepime and cefepime-enmetazobactam combined). Proteomic analysis of both bacteria after treatment with apple vinegar shows the absence of key enzymes for DNA replication, glycolytic and respiratory proteins. Proteins absent after apple vinegar treatment for E. coli are 30 s ribosomal proteins, DNA-directed RNA polymerase alpha subunit, elongation factor TU and G OS-E. coli, formate C-acetyltransferase 1 OS E-coli, chaperone protein, 60 kDa chaperone OS E. coli. Concerning S. aureus, proteins not detected after treatment with apple vinegar are elongation factor TU and phosphoglycerate kinase [54][99]. Vinegar contains different organic acids that enter through bacterial membrane inciting internal pH decrease, protonation of macromolecules, and destabilization of the cell membrane by liberation of proton H+ (Figure 2) [55][56][57][100,101,102].
Figure 2.
Mechanism of action possible of apple vinegar against pathogenic bacteria.
3.4. Antioxidant Effect
The ability to counteract the deleterious effects of free radicals was the main property searched in a natural product. This property gives vinegar an important preventive and therapeutic effects. Various compounds were found in the vinegar viz polyphenols that have an interesting antioxidant potential due to their power to scavenge free radicals, chelate transition metal ions, and reduce oxidants (Figure 1) [7][8][7,8]. Furthermore, melanoidins are among the bioactive compounds in vinegar. Due to their negative charge and macromolecular properties, they have a strong ability to chelate transition metal ions preventing metal-induced oxidation reactions [58][105].
3.5. Anti-Inflammatory Effect
Fruit vinegar had multiple uses as a healthy product. It is used against inflammation thanks to its ability to reduce the levels of inflammatory cytokines [23][59][39,108]. Previously, it proved that the pear vinegar ameliorates histological disorganization induced by dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in an experimental animal model. Research experiments have proven that pear vinegar has an interesting ability in reducing serum IL-6 and IL-1ß concentrations [60][109].3.6. Other Effects
Fruits vinegar contains diverse and different amounts of bioactive compounds which make it an active product against several diseases. Mounting evidence proved that fermented food counteracts several diseases including cancer [61][113]. Fruits vinegar contains also microbial components such as Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) that are generated during vinegar aging by the destruction of microorganisms by an elevation of acidity [62][114]. LPS modulates the host macrophage network to regulate numerous disorders such as diabetes, dyslipidemia, allergy, and cancer [63][115]. Additionally, it was proven that vinegar enhances phagocytic activity to ingest resistant microbes such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, which could reinforce the immune system to eradicate pathogen microbes and control the inflammation process [54][99]. Mimura et al. [64][116] investigated whether sugar can vinegar exerts an induction effect of apoptosis in human leukemia cells including HL-60, THP-1, Molt-4, U-937, Jurkat, Raji, and K-562. The finding led to the conclusion that sugar can vinegar contains lipophilic components with the ability to induce apoptosis in leukemia human cells. Study conducted by Seki et al. [65][117] revealed that the incorporation of vinegar in mice diet at a dose of 0.5% during 72 days decreased significantly tumor sizes and prolonged the life spans of mice implemented with sarcoma 180 and colon 38 tumor cells. Oxidative stress plays an important role in the installation of cancer through modifications of DNA. Furthermore, fruits vinegar exerts a good antioxidant ability as described above that could explain its antioxidative effect thereby protecting cells against reactive oxygen species damages.
Fruits vinegar consumption furnishes tremendous beneficial properties. It has been proven that vinegar prevents angiotensin-converting enzymes and reduced blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats [66][67][95,118]. The mechanism of action was studied by Na et al. [68][119], who evoked that the vinegar decreased blood pressure through down-regulating AT1R expression through the AMPK/PGC-1/PPARγ pathway in spontaneously hypertensive rats at a dose of 7 mL/kg during 8 weeks of treatment. The experiment revealed that the treatment with vinegar inhibits the expression of angiotensin II receptor type 1 (AT1R) and increases the expression of PPARγ coactivator 1 alpha and PPARγ, which explains the antihypertensive effect of fruits vinegar.
