SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Hesitancy: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Lindsay Dong and Version 1 by Md. Rafiul Biswas.

The underlying factors of vaccine hesitancy are complex and context-specific, varying across time and socio-demographic variables. Vaccine hesitancy can also be influenced by other factors such as health inequalities, socioeconomic disadvantages, systemic racism, and level of exposure to misinformation online, with some factors being more dominant in certain countries than others. Therefore, strategies tailored to cultures and socio-psychological factors need to be developed to reduce vaccine hesitancy and aid informed decision-making. 

  • hesitancy
  • acceptance
  • vaccine efficacy
  • vaccine safety

1. Introduction

Due to the coronavirus infection, the current pandemic is the topmost public health concern. With COVID-19 vaccines approved by the World Health Organization (WHO), the hope of overcoming the pandemic soon has increased. However, vaccines must be more widely accepted and used to end the pandemic [1]. The spread of the virus can also be mitigated by reaching herd immunity, but that takes more time [2]. Therefore, public awareness and well-designed campaigns promoting vaccination are essential to decrease the progression of COVID-19.
The WHO has already approved several vaccines and suggested getting the vaccine by majority of the population of a country as soon as possible to obtain herd immunity [2]. Despite evidence of the safety and effectiveness of vaccines, misperceptions about vaccines persist. Some people think that getting vaccinated can lead to temporary health impairments or long-term damage. Vaccine hesitancy is a complex phenomenon that affects people’s willingness to be vaccinated. Studies have shown that there is no single set of factors responsible for vaccine hesitancy. Instead, there is a wide range of contextual (i.e., communication and media, historical influence, religion, culture, gender, politics, geographic barriers), individual and group (i.e., personal, family experience with vaccination, beliefs, knowledge), and vaccine-specific factors (i.e., risk and benefit, costs) that can affect vaccine acceptance [1,3,4][1][3][4]. The cost of the vaccine may also affect willingness to be vaccinated because, in some countries, the cost is related to a person’s monthly income [5,6][5][6]. The factors affecting vaccination intention vary across countries, socioeconomic groups, demographic variables (i.e., ethnicity, gender), and types of infectious diseases [7].
Conspiracy theories and fake news propagating across social media have flourished during the COVID-19 pandemic [8]. In February 2020, when the pandemic rapidly grew worldwide, the WHO warned of an infodemic, a wave of fake news and misinformation on social media regarding COVID-19 [8]. After the approval of COVID-19 vaccines, misinformation about the vaccinations also started to disseminate quickly. The conspiracies frequently seen on social media include claims that COVID-19 vaccines change the human genome, that a microchip is implanted in the human body through the syringe, that the vaccination causes COVID-19 infections [9]. YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter announced working together to combat the problem. This misleading information may have affected the acceptance of COVID-19 vaccinations. Studies have also shown that rumors can have a negative effect on willingness to accept COVID-19 vaccines [5,10,11][5][10][11].

2. SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Hesitancy

2.1. Worldwide COVID-19 Vaccine Acceptance and Hesitancy Rate

Several studies [3,20,21,45,46,47,48,49][3][12][13][14][15][16][17][18] measured potential COVID-19 vaccine acceptance and hesitancy rates for people in Italy. The latest study [3] found that 15% of the general population in Italy would most likely refuse the vaccine, whereas 26% would be hesitant. Willingness to vaccinate was measured to be 83.2% among the HCWs in Italy [47][16], and students’ willingness to vaccinate was measured to be 86.1% [21][13]. Vaccine acceptance among people at-risk because of critical health conditions was measured at 86% [46][15].
Studies [6,22,50,51,52,53,54,55][6][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] measuring public attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccination in China showed that general population hesitancy was reported to be 25% in March 2020 [50][20]. Afterwards, vaccine hesitancy among the general population reduced to 10.9% [6], and, in September 2020 unwillingness to vaccinate was measured at 8.2% [22][19]. A total of 76.4% of the HCWs in China were willing to vaccinate [50][20].
Among the included studies [4,23,56,57,58,59,60][4][26][27][28][29][30][31] measuring the willingness to vaccinate in France, intention to refuse the COVID-19 vaccine increased over time. During the first coronavirus wave in May 2020, vaccine hesitancy was measured 28.5% among general population [56][27]. Over time, vaccine hesitancy increased to 32.8% in July 2020, 39.0% in August 2020, and 47.9% in September 2020 [56][27]. The willingness of HCWs in France to vaccinate was measured to be 48.6% [59][30] and for patients suffering from cancer diseases, willingness to vaccinate was measured to be 53.7% [23][26].
In Canada, 20% of the general population was unwilling to get the COVID-19 vaccine [73][32]. In comparison, 65% of caregivers intended to get vaccinated [74][33]. In Turkey, 31% of people were hesitant, and 54% were willing to vaccinate when the COVID-19 vaccine became available [62][34]. Another study reported that 43% of the healthcare personnel in Turkey were hesitant to get the COVID-19 vaccine [75][35]. On the other hand, a total of 65% of the general population in Ireland was willing to vaccinate [61][36]. Meanwhile, 73.9% of people in Denmark and Portugal were willing to accept the COVID-19 vaccine, 18.9% were unsure, and 7.2% refused to get vaccinated [76][37]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, general population willingness to vaccinate was reported as: 74% in Scotland [77][38], 37% in Poland [78][39], 78.3% in Indonesia [79[40][41],80], and 57.7% in Greece [81][42]. Several studies were conducted in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Vaccine hesitancy among the general population in Qatar was measured at 19.8%, and vaccine refusal was measured at 20.2% [82][43]. A total of 35% of the general population in Saudi Arabia was hesitant about the COVID-19 vaccine [83][44]. Studies [84,85][45][46] reported that 53.1% of the general population in Kuwait was willing to vaccinate. Two studies were performed in Jordan [85[46][47],86], where the latest study [86][47] showed that 29.1% of the general population was willing to accept the vaccine when it became available. The survey in [87][48] included 19 countries worldwide, and the survey in [63][49] included 26 countries from Europe. In these studies, the authors measured public willingness to vaccinate in each country. Lower vaccine intention was reported in Congo, where 28% of HCWs were willing to vaccinate [10].

2.2. Determinants of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy

There are three main types of factors that influence vaccine hesitancy or acceptance: (i) demographic factors (i.e., education, income, ethnicity), (ii) environmental factors (i.e., policies, media), and (iii) vaccine-specific factors (i.e., vaccine efficacy, safety) [74][33]. Determinants of vaccine hesitancy are specific to the context and are presented separately. Therefore, it is important to understand and acknowledge the interrelatedness of the factors [88][50]. The most common factors that influence vaccination intention are described in Table 41. In Table 41, determinants affecting vaccine hesitancy, the papers the determinants were found in, the places the studies were conducted, the education levels of the population, and the occupations of the population are described.
Table 4. Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy.
DeterminantsNo. of PaperPlace of StudyEducationOccupation
Vaccine safety and efficacy15USA, China, Hong Kong, Australia, England, France, QatarUndergradHCW, full-time employee
Vaccine side effects12USA, China, Canada, Turkey, KuwaitHigh school, secondaryWorkers, employee, nurse
Individuals believe that they are at less risk to get infected by COVID-199USA, Saudi Arabia, UK, ItalyHigh school to universityEmployee
Religious beliefs5France, Denmark, Portugal,

Germany		High schoolNot specified
Price of vaccine and lack of insurance5China, Indonesia, USAPrimary school and high schoolPrivate sector employee
Mistrust in healthcare7USACollege educationStudent, employed
Mistrust in government6France, Ireland, Italy, USAAll levelAll profession
The rapid development of a vaccine5Jordan, USA, UKUniversity levelDoctors, nurse, employed
Widespread misinformation in the social media7Greece, European countries, Jordan, KuwaitHigh schoolStudent, employed, unemployed, retired
Past vaccine experience3Australia, FranceDiplomaHealth workers
Demographic influence4Turkey, USA, ItalyHigh school, bachelorAll profession
Political instability3USAAll levelHCWs, all profession
Racist and ethnic minority3USAHigh school, bachelorAll profession
Trust in the vaccine manufacturer5China, Hong KongPrimary to bachelor’s degreeHCWs, employee, student
Lockdown periods decrease the number of cases1ItalyHigh schoolAll level
Trust in natural remedies1America and CanadaAll levelFull-time and part-time employee
Lack of information about vaccine4Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, JordanHigh school to graduateEmployed
Inconsistent risk message from public health organization4USA, Canada, UKAll levelAll level
Anti-vaccination movement4USA, Jordan, EuropeHigh school to undergradEmployed
Vaccine safety and efficacy were found to be major concerns among people of all occupations. Vaccine safety determines the risk associated with vaccine benefit-risk profile changes and can anticipate coincidental events [89,90][51][52]. Vaccine efficacy determines the percentage of vaccine effectiveness against COVID-19 [41][53]. Public concerns regarding vaccine safety and efficacy were found in several studies [2,3,5,20,29,32,43,46,54,55,60,65,69,71,83][2][3][5][12][54][55][56][15][24][25][31][57][58][59][44]. Another finding is that some people were unwilling to vaccinate due to the side effects of vaccines, as reported in [11,19,25,29,40,42,53,54,68,77,79][11][60][61][54][62][63][23][24][64][38][40]. The COVID-19 vaccine is new, and it takes time to determine the vaccine’s short-term and long-term side effects [55][25]. Willingness to vaccinate was found to be associated with the perceived risk of being infected with the COVID-19. Younger people were more confident about being at less risk of being infected by the COVID-19 [20,27,40,43,53,54,59,64,91][12][65][62][56][23][24][30][66][67]. The perception of young people is also correlated with the concept of herd immunity of the body and knowledge about SARS-COV2 [22,46][19][15]. The conflict between vaccination science and religious people exists due to conspiracy theories about morality. Because of this, some religious people reject or delay vaccination [11,56,76,92][11][27][37][68]. This report predicted that religiosity strongly predicts anti-vaccine beliefs [56,76][27][37]. Due to a lack of health insurance or financial resources that might be necessary to have access to the vaccination, people were unwilling to vaccinate [5,6,39,55,80][5][6][69][25][41]. Moreover, the ability to spend money on health was often dependent on monthly income, creating health inequalities and increasing the vaccine hesitancy rate in certain countries [5,6][5][6]. Inconsistent messages from health organizations lead to hesitation in making decisions about vaccination. Throughout the coronavirus pandemic, mistrust in healthcare systems has increased [20,25,26,37,39,66,93][12][61][70][71][69][72][73]. Because of this, a vast number of people intend to postpone getting vaccinated. Moreover, due to mistrust of the government, the general population was concerned about the vaccination information provided by government organizations, resulting in vaccine refusal [4,30,40,41,87][4][74][62][53][48]. Healthcare workers and the general population assumed that the vaccines were developed rapidly, might not pass a reasonable trial period, and were created without considering vaccine safety issues. Thus, they wanted to delay their vaccination to ensure effectiveness [35,40,69,79,84][75][62][58][40][45]. Many people use social media rather than traditional sources (newspaper, TV news) to find vaccine-related information. Anti-vaccine groups are active on social media and spread misinformation, which also influences willingness to vaccinate [32,61,63,69,81,85,93][55][36][49][58][42][46][73]. Past experiences with vaccine side effects were also associated with COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy [60,69,89][31][58][51]. People who have had other vaccines such as Influenza, Hepatitis-B, or Polio might have suffered from short-term side effects, making them unwilling to get vaccinated. Demographic factors such as duration of the survey, population size, level of education, occupation, place of study, language, and religion are interrelated with each other and they influence the decision to vaccinate [34,42,45,62][76][63][14][34]. In addition, vaccine approval due to political pressure without proof of vaccine safety and efficacy was also reported as an issue that led to people refusing the COVID-19 vaccine [22,28,88][19][77][50]. Throughout history, ethnic groups (i.e., Black) have been the victims of systemic and institutional racism and discrimination. They have been used as a target population for vaccine trials [94][78]. This scenario undermines the trust level upon vaccination. From several studies [27,42[65][63][79],44], it has been observed that Blacks are unlikely to get the COVID-19 vaccine. Trust in vaccination is also associated with the vaccine manufacturer [54,58,72,75,95][24][29][80][35][81]. However, a low percentage of people have confidence in the manufacturing companies developing safe and effective vaccines. The source of the COVID-19 vaccine might affect the perceived safety and effectiveness. It was assumed that vaccines manufactured in Europe or America were safer than those made in other countries [75][35]. Lockdowns and other precautionary measures, such as face masks, have reduced the number of infections [46][15]. Because of this, studies have found that some people became less interested in getting vaccinated [54][24]. It has also been found [27,36,38,43,91][65][82][83][56][67] that the inconsistent risk messages regarding COVID-19 reduced the intention of vaccine uptake. Moreover, the anti-vaccination movement on social media [31,39,64,79,91,92][84][69][66][40][67][68] has made a significant impact on people’s perception about vaccination. Another reason for hesitancy is that some people prefer natural immunity [73][32]. This preference can stem from not trusting the scientific enterprise of medicine or not believing in it entirely [37][71]. In addition, some people want to know about the components and manufacturing process of the COVID-19 vaccine, which is not often revealed to the public. The lack of information provided by the manufacturers was also a reason for some people to be hesitant to get the vaccine [74,86,87,91][33][47][48][67].    

References

  1. WHO. Report of the Sage Working Group. October 2014, p. 64. Available online: https://www.who.int/immunization/sage/meetings/2014/october/1_Report_WORKING_GROUP_vaccine_hesitancy_final.pdf (accessed on 22 February 2021).
  2. Randolph, H.E.; Barreiro, L.B. Herd immunity: Understanding COVID-19. Immunity 2020, 52, 737–741.
  3. Biasio, L.R.; Bonaccorsi, G.; Lorini, C.; Pecorelli, S. Assessing COVID-19 vaccine literacy: A preliminary online survey. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 2021, 17, 1304–1312.
  4. Hacquin, A.-S.; Altay, S.; de Araujo, E.; Chevallier, C.; Mercier, H. Sharp Rise in Vaccine Hesitancy in a Large and Representative Sample of the French Population: Reasons for Vaccine Hesitancy. 2020. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/r8h6z (accessed on 22 February 2021).
  5. Callaghan, T.; Moghtaderi, A.; Lueck, J.A.; Hotez, P.; Strych, U.; Dor, A.; Fowler, E.F.; Motta, M. Correlates and disparities of intention to vaccinate against COVID-19. Soc. Sci. Med. 2021, 272, 113638.
  6. Dong, D.; Xu, R.H.; Wong, E.L.; Hung, C.; Feng, D.; Feng, Z.; Yeoh, E.; Wong, S.Y. Public preference for COVID-19 vaccines in China: A discrete choice experiment. Health Expect 2020, 23, 1543–1578.
  7. Chevallier, C.; Hacquin, A.-S.; Mercier, H. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy: Shortening the last mile. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2021, 25, 331–333.
  8. Daley, M.F.; Narwaney, K.J.; Shoup, J.A.; Wagner, N.M.; Glanz, J.M. Addressing parents’ vaccine concerns: A randomized trial of a social media intervention. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2018, 55, 44–54.
  9. Dubé, E.; Vivion, M.; MacDonald, N.E. Vaccine hesitancy, vaccine refusal and the anti-vaccine movement: Influence, impact and implications. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2015, 14, 99–117.
  10. Kabamba Nzaji, M.; Kabamba Ngombe, L.; Ngoie Mwamba, G.; Banza Ndala, D.B.; Mbidi Miema, J.; Lungoyo, C.L.; Mwimba, B.L.; Bene, A.C.M.; Musenga, E.M. Acceptability of vaccination against COVID-19 among healthcare workers in the democratic republic of the Congo. Pragmatic Obs. Res. 2020, 11, 103–109.
  11. Unroe, K.T.; Evans, R.; Weaver, L.; Rusyniak, D.; Blackburn, J. Willingness of long-term care staff to receive a COVID-19 vaccine: A single state survey. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2021, 69, 593–599.
  12. Barello, S.; Palamenghi, L.; Graffigna, G. Looking inside the ‘black box’ of vaccine hesitancy: Unlocking the effect of psychological attitudes and beliefs on COVID-19 vaccine acceptance and implications for public health communication. Psychol. Med. 2021, 1–2.
  13. Barello, S.; Nania, T.; Dellafiore, F.; Graffigna, G.; Caruso, R. ‘Vaccine hesitancy’ among university students in Italy during the COVID-19 pandemic. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2020, 35, 781–783.
  14. Graffigna, G.; Palamenghi, L.; Boccia, S.; Barello, S. Relationship between citizens’ health engagement and intention to take the COVID-19 vaccine in Italy: A mediation analysis. Vaccines 2020, 8, 576.
  15. Caserotti, M.; Girardi, P.; Rubaltelli, E.; Tasso, A.; Lotto, L.; Gavaruzzi, T. Associations of COVID-19 risk perception with vaccine hesitancy over time for Italian residents. Soc. Sci. Med. 2021, 272, 113688.
  16. Palamenghi, L.; Barello, S.; Boccia, S.; Graffigna, G. Mistrust in biomedical research and vaccine hesitancy: The forefront challenge in the battle against COVID-19 in Italy. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2020, 35, 785–788.
  17. La Vecchia, C.; Negri, E.; Alicandro, G.; Scarpino, V. Attitudes towards influenza vaccine and a potential COVID-19 vaccine in Italy and differences across occupational groups, September 2020. Med. Lav 2020, 111, 445–448.
  18. Prati, G. Intention to receive a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in Italy and its association with trust, worry and beliefs about the origin of the virus. Health Educ. Res. 2020, 35, 505–511.
  19. Lin, Y.; Hu, Z.; Zhao, Q.; Alias, H.; Danaee, M.; Wong, L.P. Understanding COVID-19 vaccine demand and hesitancy: A nationwide online survey in China. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2020, 14, e0008961.
  20. Fu, C.; Wei, Z.; Pei, S.; Li, S.; Sun, X.; Liu, P. Acceptance and preference for COVID-19 vaccination in healthcare workers (HCWs). Medrxiv 2020, 2962, 548.
  21. Zhang, K.C.; Fang, Y.; Cao, H.; Chen, H.; Hu, T.; Chen, Y.Q.; Zhou, X.; Wang, Z. Parental acceptability of COVID-19 vaccination for children under the age of 18 years: Cross-sectional online survey. JMIR Pediatr. Parent. 2020, 3, e24827.
  22. Zhang, Y.; Luo, X.; Ma, Z.F. Willingness of the general population to accept and pay for COVID-19 vaccination during the early stages of COVID-19 pandemic: A nationally representative survey in mainland China. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 2021, 17, 1622–1627.
  23. Chen, M.; Li, Y.; Chen, J.; Wen, Z.; Feng, F.; Zou, H.; Fu, C.; Chen, L.; Shu, Y.; Sun, C. An online survey of the attitude and willingness of Chinese adults to receive COVID-19 vaccination. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 2021, 17, 2279–2288.
  24. Yang, F.; Li, X.; Su, X.; Xiao, T.; Wang, Y.; Hu, P.; Li, H.; Guan, J.; Tian, H.; Wang, P.; et al. A study on willingness and influencing factors to receive COVID-19 vaccination among Qingdao residents. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 2021, 17, 408–413.
  25. Wang, K.; Wong, E.L.Y.; Ho, K.F.; Cheung, A.W.L.; Chan, E.Y.Y.; Yeoh, E.K.; Wong, S.Y.S. Intention of nurses to accept coronavirus disease 2019 vaccination and change of intention to accept seasonal influenza vaccination during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic: A cross-sectional survey. Vaccine 2020, 38, 7049–7056.
  26. Barrière, J.; Gal, J.; Hoch, B.; Cassuto, O.; Leysalle, A.; Chamorey, E.; Borchiellini, D. Acceptance of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination among French patients with cancer: A cross-sectional survey. Ann. Oncol. 2021, 32, 673–674.
  27. Bertin, P.; Nera, K.; Delouvée, S. Conspiracy beliefs, rejection of vaccination, and support for hydroxychloroquine: A conceptual replication-extension in the COVID-19 pandemic context. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 1–9.
  28. Schwarzinger, M.; Watson, V.; Arwidson, P.; Alla, F.; Luchini, S. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in a representative working-age population in France: A survey experiment based on vaccine characteristics. Lancet Public Health 2021, 6, e210–e221.
  29. Detoc, M.; Bruel, S.; Frappe, P.; Tardy, B.; Botelho-Nevers, E.; Gagneux-Brunon, A. Intention to participate in a COVID-19 vaccine clinical trial and to get vaccinated against COVID-19 in France during the pandemic. Vaccine 2020, 38, 7002–7006.
  30. Gagneux-Brunon, A.; Detoc, M.; Bruel, S.; Tardy, B.; Rozaire, O.; Frappe, P.; Botelho-Nevers, E. Intention to get vaccinations against COVID-19 in French healthcare workers during the first pandemic wave: A cross-sectional survey. J. Hosp. Infect. 2021, 108, 168–173.
  31. Verger, P.; Scronias, D.; Dauby, N.; Adedzi, K.A.; Gobert, C.; Bergeat, M.; Gagneur, A.; Dubé, E. Attitudes of healthcare workers towards COVID-19 vaccination: A survey in France and French-speaking parts of Belgium and Canada, 2020. Eurosurveillance 2021, 26, 2002047.
  32. Taylor, S.; Landry, C.A.; Paluszek, M.M.; Groenewoud, R.; Rachor, G.S.; Asmundson, G.J.G. A proactive approach for managing COVID-19: The importance of understanding the motivational roots of vaccination hesitancy for SARS-CoV2. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 575950.
  33. Kumar, D.; Chandra, R.; Mathur, M.; Samdariya, S.; Kapoor, N. Vaccine hesitancy: Understanding better to address better. Isr. J. Health Policy Res. 2016, 5, 1–8.
  34. Salali, G.D.; Uysal, M.S. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy is associated with beliefs on the origin of the novel coronavirus in the UK and Turkey. Psychol. Med. 2020, 1–3, online ahead of print.
  35. Kose, S.; Mandiracioglu, A.; Sahin, S.; Kaynar, T.; Karbus, O.; Ozbel, Y. Vaccine hesitancy of the COVID-19 by health care personnel. Int. J. Clin. Pr. 2021, 75, 17–20.
  36. Murphy, J.J.; Vallieres, F.; Bentall, R.P.; Shevlin, M.; McBride, O.; Hatman, T.K.; McKay, R.; Bennett, K.M.; Mason, L.; Miller, J.G.; et al. Preparing for a COVID-19 Vaccine: Identifying and Psychologically Profiling Those Who Are Vaccine Hesitant or Resistant in Two General Population Samples. 2020. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/8dtnq (accessed on 21 February 2021).
  37. Neumann-Böhme, S.; Varghese, N.E.; Sabat, I.; Barros, P.P.; Brouwer, W.; Van Exel, J.; Schreyögg, J.; Stargardt, T. Once we have it, will we use it? A European survey on willingness to be vaccinated against COVID-19. Eur. J. Health Econ. 2020, 21, 977–982.
  38. Williams, L.; Flowers, P.; McLeod, J.; Young, D.; Rollins, L.; The CATALYST Project Team. Social patterning and stability of intention to accept a COVID-19 vaccine in Scotland: Will those most at risk accept a vaccine? Vaccines 2021, 9, 17.
  39. Feleszko, W.; Lewulis, P.; Czarnecki, A.; Waszkiewicz, P. Flattening the curve of COVID-19 vaccine rejection—An international overview. Vaccines 2021, 9, 44.
  40. Harapan, H.; Wagner, A.L.; Yufika, A.; Winardi, W.; Anwar, S.; Gan, A.K.; Setiawan, A.M.; Rajamoorthy, Y.; Sofyan, H.; Mudatsir, M. Acceptance of a COVID-19 Vaccine in Southeast Asia: A cross-sectional study in Indonesia. Front. Public Health 2020, 8, 381.
  41. Harapan, H.; Wagner, A.L.; Yufika, A.; Winardi, W.; Anwar, S.; Gan, A.K.; Setiawan, A.M.; Rajamoorthy, Y.; Sofyan, H.; Vo, T.Q.; et al. Willingness-to-pay for a COVID-19 vaccine and its associated determinants in Indonesia. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 2020, 16, 3074–3080.
  42. Kourlaba, G.; Kourkouni, E.; Maistreli, S.; Tsopela, C.-G.; Molocha, N.-M.; Triantafyllou, C.; Koniordou, M.; Kopsidas, I.; Chorianopoulou, E.; Maroudi-Manta, S.; et al. Willingness of Greek general population to get a COVID-19 vaccine. Glob. Health Res. Policy 2021, 6, 1–10.
  43. Alabdulla, M.; Reagu, S.M.; Al-Khal, A.; Elzain, M.; Jones, R.M. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and attitudes in Qatar: A national cross-sectional survey of a migrant-majority population. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 2021, 15, 361–370.
  44. Al-Mohaithef, M.; Padhi, B.K. Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance in Saudi Arabia: A web-based national survey. J. Multidiscotlandip. Health 2020, 13, 1657–1663.
  45. Alqudeimat, Y.; Alenezi, D.; AlHajri, B.; Alfouzan, H.; Almokhaizeem, Z.; Altamimi, S.; Almansouri, W.; Alzalzalah, S.; Ziyab, A. Acceptance of a COVID-19 Vaccine and its related determinants among the general adult population in Kuwait. Med. Princ. Pr. 2021, 10, 2052–2061.
  46. Sallam, M.; Dababseh, D.; Eid, H.; Al-Mahzoum, K.; Al-Haidar, A.; Taim, D.; Yaseen, A.; Ababneh, N.A.; Bakri, F.G.; Mahafzah, A. High rates of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and its association with conspiracy beliefs: A study in Jordan and Kuwait among other Arab countries. Vaccines 2021, 9, 42.
  47. El-Elimat, T.; AbuAlSamen, M.M.; Almomani, B.A.; Al-Sawalha, N.A.; Alali, F.Q. Acceptance and attitudes toward COVID-19 vaccines: A cross-sectional study from Jordan. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0250555.
  48. Lazarus, J.V.; Scotlandott, C.R.; Adam, P.; Lawrence, O.G.; Heidi, J.L.; Kenneth, R.; Spencer, K.; El-Mohandes, A. Author Correction: A global survey of potential acceptance of a COVID-19 vaccine. Nat. Med. 2021.
  49. Marcec, R.; Majta, M.; Likic, R. Will vaccination refusal prolong the war on SARS-CoV-2? Postgrad. Med. J. 2020, 97, 143–149.
  50. Kane, M. Discotlandussion. Vaccine 1998, 16, S73–S75.
  51. Peretti-Watel, P.; Seror, V.; Cortaredona, S.; Launay, O.; Raude, J.; Verger, P.; Fressard, L.; Beck, F.; Legleye, S.; L’Haridon, O.; et al. A future vaccination campaign against COVID-19 at risk of vaccine hesitancy and politicisation. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2020, 20, 769–770.
  52. Kochhar, S.; Salmon, D.A. Planning for COVID-19 vaccines safety surveillance. Vaccine 2020, 38, 6194–6198.
  53. Pogue, K.; Jensen, J.L.; Stancil, C.K.; Ferguson, D.G.; Hughes, S.J.; Mello, E.J.; Burgess, R.; Berges, B.K.; Quaye, A.; Poole, B.D. Influences on attitudes regarding potential COVID-19 vaccination in the United States. Vaccines 2020, 8, 582.
  54. Caban-Martinez, A.J.; Silvera, C.A.; Santiago, K.M.; Louzado-Feliciano, P.; Burgess, J.L.; Smith, D.L.; Jahnke, S.; Horn, G.P.; Graber, J.M. COVID-19 vaccine acceptability among us firefighters and emergency medical services workers. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2021, 63, 369–373.
  55. Fisher, K.A.; Bloomstone, S.J.; Walder, J.; Crawford, S.; Fouayzi, H.; Mazor, K.M. Attitudes toward a potential SARS-CoV-2 vaccine: A survey of US adults. Ann. Intern. Med. 2020, 173, 964–973.
  56. Karlsson, L.C.; Soveri, A.; Lewandowsky, S.; Karlsson, L.; Karlsson, H.; Nolvi, S.; Karukivi, M.; Lindfelt, M.; Antfolk, J. Fearing the disease or the vaccine: The case of COVID-19. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2021, 172, 110590.
  57. Bell, S.; Clarke, R.; Mounier-Jack, S.; Walker, J.L.; Paterson, P. Parents’ and guardians’ views on the acceptability of a future COVID-19 vaccine: A multi-methods study in England. Vaccine 2020, 38, 7789–7798.
  58. Alley, S.J.; Stanton, R.; Browne, M.; To, Q.G.; Khalesi, S.; Williams, S.L.; Thwaite, T.L.; Fenning, A.S.; Vandelanotte, C. As the pandemic progresses, how does willingness to vaccinate against COVID-19 evolve? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 797.
  59. Kwok, K.O.; Li, K.-K.; Wei, W.I.; Tang, A.; Wong, S.Y.S.; Lee, S.S. Influenza vaccine uptake, COVID-19 vaccination intention and vaccine hesitancy among nurses: A survey. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2021, 114, 103854.
  60. Shahrabani, S.; Benzion, U.; Yom Din, G. Factors affecting nurses’ decision to get the flu vaccine. Eur. J. Health Econ. 2009, 10, 227–231.
  61. Wong, M.C.; Wong, E.L.; Huang, J.; Cheung, A.W.; Law, K.; Chong, M.K.; Ng, R.W.; Lai, C.K.; Boon, S.S.; Lau, J.T.; et al. Acceptance of the COVID-19 vaccine based on the health belief model: A population-based survey in Hong Kong. Vaccine 2021, 39, 1148–1156.
  62. Guidry, J.P.; Laestadius, L.I.; Vraga, E.K.; Miller, C.A.; Perrin, P.B.; Burton, C.W.; Ryan, M.; Fuemmeler, B.F.; Carlyle, K.E. Willingness to get the COVID-19 vaccine with and without emergency use authorization. Am. J. Infect. Control. 2021, 49, 137–142.
  63. Largent, E.A.; Persad, G.; Sangenito, S.; Glickman, A.; Boyle, C.; Emanuel, E.J. US public attitudes toward COVID-19 vaccine mandates. JAMA Netw. Open 2020, 3, e2033324.
  64. Attwell, K.; Lake, J.; Sneddon, J.; Gerrans, P.; Blyth, C.; Lee, J. Converting the maybes: Crucial for a successful COVID-19 vaccination strategy. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0245907.
  65. Ruiz, J.B.; Bell, R.A. Predictors of intention to vaccinate against COVID-19: Results of a nationwide survey. Vaccine 2021, 39, 1080–1086.
  66. Williams, L.; Gallant, A.J.; Rasmussen, S.; Nicholls, L.A.B.; Cogan, N.; Deakin, K.; Young, D.; Flowers, P. Towards intervention development to increase the uptake of COVID-19 vaccination among those at high risk: Outlining evidence-based and theoretically informed future intervention content. Br. J. Health Psychol. 2020, 25, 1039–1054.
  67. Goldman, R.D.; Yan, T.D.; Seiler, M.; Cotanda, C.P.; Brown, J.C.; Klein, E.J.; Hoeffe, J.; Gelernter, R.; Hall, J.E.; Davis, A.L.; et al. Caregiver willingness to vaccinate their children against COVID-19: Cross sectional survey. Vaccine 2020, 38, 7668–7673.
  68. Olagoke, A.A.; Olagoke, O.; Hughes, A.M. Intention to vaccinate against the novel 2019 Coronavirus disease: The role of health locus of control and religiosity. J. Relig. Health 2021, 60, 65–80.
  69. Reiter, P.L.; Pennell, M.L.; Katz, M.L. Acceptability of a COVID-19 vaccine among adults in the United States: How many people would get vaccinated? Vaccine 2020, 38, 6500–6507.
  70. Qiao, S.; Tam, C.C.; Li, X. Risk exposures, risk perceptions, negative attitudes toward general vaccination, and COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among college students in South Carolina. Am. J. Health Promot. 2021, 1–25.
  71. Khubchandani, J.; Sharma, S.; Price, J.H.; Wiblishauser, M.J.; Sharma, M.; Webb, F.J. COVID-19 Vaccination hesitancy in the United States: A rapid national assessment. J. Community Health 2021, 46, 270–277.
  72. Freeman, D.; Loe, B.S.; Chadwick, A.; Vaccari, C.; Waite, F.; Rosebrock, L.; Jenner, L.; Petit, A.; Lewandowsky, S.; Vanderslott, S.; et al. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the UK: The Oxford coronavirus explanations, attitudes, and narratives survey (Oceans) II. Psychol. Med. 2020, 1–15.
  73. Sallam, M. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy worldwide: A concise systematic review of vaccine acceptance rates. Vaccines 2021, 9, 160.
  74. Shekhar, R.; Sheikh, A.; Upadhyay, S.; Singh, M.; Kottewar, S.; Mir, H.; Barrett, E.; Pal, S. COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among health care workers in the United States. Vaccines 2021, 9, 119.
  75. Gadoth, M.A.; Halbrook, M.M.; Martin-Blais, R.; Gray, A.; Tobin, N.H.; Ferbas, K.G.; Aldrovandi, M.G.M.; Rimoin, M.A.W. Cross-sectional assessment of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among health care workers in Los Angeles. Ann. Intern. Med. 2021.
  76. Ehde, D.M.; Roberts, M.K.; Herring, T.E.; Alschuler, K.N. Willingness to obtain COVID-19 vaccination in adults with multiple sclerosis in the United States. Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord. 2021, 49, 102788.
  77. Kreps, S.; Prasad, S.; Brownstein, J.S.; Hswen, Y.; Garibaldi, B.T.; Zhang, B.; Kriner, D.L. Factors associated with US adults’ likelihood of accepting COVID-19 vaccination. JAMA Netw. Open 2020, 3, e2025594.
  78. Razai, M.S.; Osama, T.; McKechnie, D.G.J.; Majeed, A. Covid-19 vaccine hesitancy among ethnic minority groups. BMJ 2021, 372, n513.
  79. Szilagyi, P.G.; Thomas, K.; Shah, M.D.; Vizueta, N.; Cui, Y.; Vangala, S.; Kapteyn, A. National trends in the US public’s likelihood of getting a COVID-19 vaccine—April 1 to December 8, 2020. JAMA 2021, 325, 396.
  80. Wang, J.; Jing, R.; Lai, X.; Zhang, H.; Lyu, Y.; Knoll, M.D.; Fang, H. Acceptance of COVID-19 vaccination during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Vaccines 2020, 8, 482.
  81. Yang, Y.; Dobalian, A.; Ward, K.D. COVID-19 Vaccine hesitancy and its determinants among adults with a history of tobacco or marijuana use. J. Community Health 2021, 1–9.
  82. Thunstrom, L.; Ashworth, M.; Finnoff, D.; Newbold, S. Hesitancy towards a COVID-19 Vaccine and Prospects for Herd Immunity. SSRN Electron. Available online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3593098 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3593098 (accessed on 30 June 2020).
  83. Mercadante, A.R.; Law, A.V. Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID- 19 The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect the company’s public news and information. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. 2020, 14, 337–339.
  84. Latkin, C.A.; Dayton, L.; Yi, G.; Colon, B.; Kong, X. Mask usage, social distancing, racial, and gender correlates of COVID-19 vaccine intentions among adults in the US. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0246970.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Video Production Service
Feedback