Mosquito-Associated Viruses in West Africa: Comparison
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Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Nora Tang and Version 1 by Hanna Jöst.

A cumulative number of MAVs are being discovered in hematophagous arthropods all over the world. There is a potential impact on the fitness and competence of the vector. Therefore, more research is needed to expand the knowledge about their prevalence, distribution, and diversity. The trend of MAVs reported in the literature enlightens how researches about MAVs are on the increase. The past decades have shown a dramatic surge in the literature recounting novel MSVs and classical arboviruses. The increase in research interest has provided new understanding about viral diversity and evolution. Finally, the new viruses discovered have created curiosity in their use as potential biological control agents. 

  • Mosquito-Associated Viruses

1. Flaviridae

Flaviviruses are enveloped, spherical, and about 50 nm in diameter. The surface proteins of the viral capsid are arranged in an icosahedral-like symmetry. They have a monopartite, linear, ssRNA(+) genome of about 9.7–12 kb [147]. These viruses can be divided into three main groups: those that are maintained in an arthropod–vertebrate cycle and strictly depend on each other are called dual-host flaviviruses [148]; those that are limited to vertebrates with an unknown arthropod relationship are known as vertebrate-specific flavivirus [149]; and those that replicate only in insect cell lines are termed insect-specific flaviviruses [148,150,151]. Flaviviruses and flavivirus-specific antibodies detected in West Africa are shown in 

Flaviviruses are enveloped, spherical, and about 50 nm in diameter. The surface proteins of the viral capsid are arranged in an icosahedral-like symmetry. They have a monopartite, linear, ssRNA(+) genome of about 9.7–12 kb [1]. These viruses can be divided into three main groups: those that are maintained in an arthropod–vertebrate cycle and strictly depend on each other are called dual-host flaviviruses [2]; those that are limited to vertebrates with an unknown arthropod relationship are known as vertebrate-specific flavivirus [3]; and those that replicate only in insect cell lines are termed insect-specific flaviviruses [2][4][5]. Flaviviruses and flavivirus-specific antibodies detected in West Africa are shown in 

Figure 2.

1.

Viruses 13 00891 g002a 550Viruses 13 00891 g002b 550Viruses 13 00891 g002c 550

Figure 1. Distribution of MAVs in West Africa. A–C Mosquito-borne viruses (A) Flaviviridae; (B) Togaviridae; (C) Peribunyaviridae, Rhabdoviridae and Reoviridae; (D) Mosquito-specific viruses. Location of the signs in the country was chosen randomly and does not refer to the location where the study was performed; * = Proposed taxon; ** = Unclassified viruses.

The application of next generation sequencing (NGS) techniques in virus discovery has led to the identification and isolation of numerous MSVs [4]. West Africa is not left out in this discovery, and MAVs known to cause outbreaks and those which are not associated with human infections are outlined in 

The application of next generation sequencing (NGS) techniques in virus discovery has led to the identification and isolation of numerous MSVs [6]. West Africa is not left out in this discovery, and MAVs known to cause outbreaks and those which are not associated with human infections are outlined in 

Table 1. The first mosquito-specific flavivirus isolated was cell fusing agent virus (CFAV) in 1975 [152], but this virus was never identified in West Africa until 2016 in Ghana [131]. CFAV was isolated from mosquitoes collected via a mosquito surveillance field work from 2015 to 2016 in Ghana. Examples of other MSVs identified in West Africa include: Nounane virus and Nienokoue virus (Côte d’Ivoire); Anopheles flavivirus-like virus and Barkedji virus (Senegal); and Culex flavivirus (Ghana) [13,80,131,132,133]. Nounane and Nienokoue viruses were identified in Tai National Park, a tropical rainforest zone, from the 

. The first mosquito-specific flavivirus isolated was cell fusing agent virus (CFAV) in 1975 [7], but this virus was never identified in West Africa until 2016 in Ghana [8]. CFAV was isolated from mosquitoes collected via a mosquito surveillance field work from 2015 to 2016 in Ghana. Examples of other MSVs identified in West Africa include: Nounane virus and Nienokoue virus (Côte d’Ivoire); Anopheles flavivirus-like virus and Barkedji virus (Senegal); and Culex flavivirus (Ghana) [9][10][8][11][12]. Nounane and Nienokoue viruses were identified in Tai National Park, a tropical rainforest zone, from the 

Culex

 and 

Uranotaenia mosquitoes respectively [132,133].

 mosquitoes respectively [11][12].

Table 1. Mosquito-associated viruses (MAVs) discovered in West Africa from 1951–2021.

FamilyName of

Virus		Year of Virus

Detection		CountrySource of Virus DetectionReference
FlaviviridaeMosquito-borne viruses
 Dengue2009Cape VerdeAedes aegypti[13]
  2014/15Cape VerdeAe. aegypti[14]
  2016/17GhanaSerology/Human[15]
  2016/17GhanaHuman[16]
  2014/2016GhanaSerology/Human[17]
  1974SenegalAe. luteocephalus, Serology/Human[18]
  1983SenegalHuman[19]
  1990SenegalAedes sp[20]
  2015/19SenegalHuman[21]
  1999SenegalAedes sp[22]
  2009/10SenegalAe. aegypti, Serology/Human[23]
  1964NigeriaSerology/Human[24]
  1975NigeriaSerology/Human[25]
  2001NigeriaSerology/Human[26]
  2010 *NigeriaSerology/Human[27]
  2011NigeriaSerology/Human[28]
  2013 *NigeriaSerology/Human[29]
  2014 *NigeriaSerology/Human[30]
  1987/93BeninSerology/Human[31]
  2010BeninSerology/Human[32]
  2019BeninSerology/Human; Human[33]
  2015MauritaniaSerology/Human[34]
  2017Burkina FasoSerology/Human[35]
  2016Burkina FasoSerology/Human[36]
  2019Burkina FasoSerology/Human[37]
  1980Burkina FasoAedes sp[38]
  1983/86Burkina FasoAedes sp[39]
  2013/14Burkina FasoSerology/Human[40]
  2015/17Burkina FasoSerology/Human[41]
  2014Burkina FasoSerology/Human[42]
  2016/17Burkina FasoSerology/Human[43]
  2016Burkina FasoSerology/Human[44]
  1982Burkina FasoSerology/Human[45]
  2004Burkina FasoSerology/Human[46]
  2016Burkina FasoSerology/Human[47]
  2013/14Burkina FasoSerology/Human[48]
  2017Burkina FasoSerology/Human[35]
  2003/4Burkina FasoSerology/Human[49]
  2016Burkina FasoSerology/Human[50]
  2009/13MaliSerology/Human[51]
  2006MaliSerology/Human[52]
  1999Côte d’IvoireMosquitoes, Serology/Human[53]
  2010Côte d’IvoireSerology/Human, Human[54]
  2011/12Côte d’IvoireSerology/Human, Human[55]
  2017Côte d’IvoireSerology/Human, Human[56]
  2019Côte d’IvoireSerology/Human[57]
 Dengue1978/91GuineaMosquitoes[58]
  2006/8Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[59]
  2016 *Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[60]
  2012/13Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[61]
 West Nile2012/13SenegalCulex sp, Aedes sp[62]
  1972/75SenegalSerology/Human[63]
  1998/99SenegalMasonia uniformis[64]
  1951/55NigeriaSerology/Human[65]
  1968/69NigeriaSerology/human[66]
  1963NigeriaSerology/Human[67]
  1975NigeriaSerology/Human[68]
  1987NigeriaSerology/Horses[69]
  2011/12NigeriaSerology/Horses[70]
  2018NigeriaHuman[71]
  2015MauritaniaSerology/Human[34]
  2009/13MaliSerology/Human[51]
  2006/8Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[59]
 Zika2016Cape VerdeAe. aegytpi[72]
  2016MaliSerology/Human[73]
  1972/75SenegalSerology/Human[63]
  1999Côte d’IvoireMosquitoes, Serology/Human[53]
  2010/14GambiaSerology[74]
  1975 *NigeriaSerology[25]
  1951/55NigeriaSerology/Human[65]
  2018NigeriaSerology[71]
 Yellow Fever1989NigeriaSerology/horses[69]
  1951/55NigeriaSerology/Human[65]
  1968/69NigeriaSerology/Human[66]
  1975NigeriaSerology/Human[68]
  1972/75SenegalSerology/Human[63]
  1976SenegalAedes sp[75]
  2003/8Burkina FasoSerology/Human[76]
  1983/86Burkina FasoAedes sp[39]
  1983Burkina FasoAedes sp[77]
  1999Burkina FasoSerology/Human[78]
  1987MaliSerology/Human[79]
  2006MaliSerology/Human[52]
  1999Côte d’IvoireMosquitoes, Serology/Human[53]
  2006/09Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[59]
  1977/80GhanaHuman[80]
  1963GhanaHuman[80]
  1969/70GhanaHuman[80]
  2011GhanaHuman[81]
 Usutu2012/13SenegalCulex sp[62]
  1972/1977SenegalAedes sp[82]
  1972NigeriaTurdus libonyanus[83]
  2018NigeriaSerology/Human[71]
  2004Burkina FasoSerology/Human[83]
  2004Côte d’IvoireCulex quinquefasciatus[83]
 Wesselsbron1972/75SenegalSerology/Human[63]
  1971 *NigeriaSerology/Horse[84]
  1975NigeriaSerology/Human[68]
  1989 *NigeriaSerology/Horse[69]
  1998MauritaniaAedes vexans[64]
  1978/91GuineaMosquitoes[58]
 Spondweni1982 *Burkina FasoSerology/Human[85]
 Kedougou1978 *SenegalAedes sp[86]
 Ntaya1977NigeriaSerology/Human[87]
 Yaounde2012/13SenegalCulex sp[62]
 Bagazza2012/13SenegalCulex sp[62]
  1998/99SenegalAedes fowleri[64]
  1998/99MauritaniaCulex neavei[64]
 Barkedji2012/13SenegalCulex sp, Aedes sp[62]
 Potiskum1989 *NigeriaSerology/Horses[69]
 Uganda S1989 *NigeriaSerology/Horses[69]
 Saboya1978/91GuineaMosquitoes[58]
Togaviridae     
 Chikungunya1963NigeriaAedes sp[88]
  1969NigeriaSerology/Human[89]
  1968/69NigeriaSerology/Human[66]
  1989 *NigeriaSerology/Horse[69]
  1974NigeriaSerology/Human[90]
  2009/10SenegalSerology, Aedes sp[91]
  1972/75SenegalSerology/Human[63]
  2016/17GhanaSerology/Human[15]
  2006BeninSerology/Human[92]
  2009/13MaliSerology/Human[51]
Togaviridae 
 Chikungunya2012/13Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[93]
  2016/17Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[94]
  2006/8Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[59]
  2012/13Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[61]
  1975/77Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[87]
  1977LiberiaSerology/Human[87]
 Semliki Forest1971SenegalSerology/Horses[95]
  1951/55NigeriaSerology/Human[65]
  2014 *NigeriaSerology/Human[96]
 Sindbis2012/13SenegalCulex sp[62]
  1972/75SenegalSerology[63]
 Ndumu2012/13SenegalSeveral mosquitoes[63]
 Onyongnyong1989 *NigeriaSerology/Horses[69]
  1974NigeriaSerology/Human[87]
  1975NigeriaSerology/Human[87]
  1954GhanaSerology/Human[87]
  1975/77Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[87]
Phenuiviridae     
 Rift Valley fever1993/96Burkina FasoAedes sp[39]
  1987Burkina FasoSerology/Sheep[97]
  2005/7Burkina FasoSerology/livestock[98]
  1985/87Burkina FasoSerology/livestock[99]
  2006/8Sierra LeoneSerology/Human[59]
  1987 *GuineaSerology/Bats[100]
  1978/91GuineaMosquitoes[58]
  2016MaliSerology/Human[101]
  2015MaliSerology/Human[102]
  2005/14MaliSerology/Bovine[103]
  2016NigerSerology/Human/

Livestock		[104]
  1959NigeriaSerology/Sheep[105]
  2016NigeriaSerology/Camels[106]
  1989NigeriaSeroloy/Horses[69]
  1998SenegalCulex sp, Serology[107]
  2012/13SenegalAedes ochraceus[62]
  1998/99SenegalCulex poicilipes[64]
  1998MauritaniaCulex poicilipes[64]
  2015MauritaniaSerology/Human[34]
Peribunyaviridae 
 Zinga1975/1977NigeriaSerology/Human[87]
 Bunyamwera1978 *SenegalSerology/Human[63]
  1951/55NigeriaSerology/Human[65]
  1963NigeriaM. africana[88]
  1978/91GuineaMosquitoes[58]
 Arumowot1968/69NigeriaSerology/Human[66]
 Bwamba1969/72NigeriaSerology/Human[108]
  1951/55NigeriaSerology/Human[65]
 Ngari2010MauritaniaSerology/Goat[109]
 Nyando1972 *SenegalSerology/Human[110]
 Pongola1963NigeriaM. africana[88]
 Akabane2015NigeriaSerology/Livestock[111]
 M’Poko1978/91GuineaMosquitoes[58]
Rhabdoviridae     
 Mossuril1978/91GuineaMosquitoes[58]
Reoviridae     
 Acado2012/13SenegalCulex sp[62]
 Sanar2012/13SenegalCulex neavei, M. uniformis[62]
  1998/99SenegalCulex poicilipes[64]
 Kindia1978/91GuineaMosquitoes[58]
 African horse sickeness1971 *NigeriaSerology/Horse[84]
  1993 *NigeriaSerology/Camels/Donkey/

Dogs/Horses		[112]
  1993 *NigeriaSerology/Horse[113]
  1995 *NigeriaSerology/Horse[114]
FlaviviridaeMosquito-specific viruses
 Culex flavivirus2016GhanaCulex sp[115]
 Cell fusing agent virus2016GhanaAedes aegypti[115]
 Anopheles flavivirus-like 22012SenegalAnopheles sp[116]
 Anopheles flavivirus-like 12012SenegalAnopheles sp[116]
 Nienokoue2004Côte d’IvoireCulex species mosquitoes[117]
 Nounane2004Côte d’IvoireUranotaenia mashonaensis[118]
Togaviridae     
 Taï Forest alphavirus2004Côte d’IvoireCulex decens[119]
Peribunyaviridae     
 Ferak2004Côte d’IvoireCulex decens[120]
 Jonchet2004Côte d’IvoireCulex sp[120]
 Herbert2004Côte d’IvoireCulex nebulosus[121]
 Tai2004Côte d’IvoireCulex sp[121]
Rhabdoviridae     
 Moussa2004Côte d’IvoireCulex decens[122]
Mesoniviridae     
 Odorna2016GhanaAedes aegypti[115]
 Dianke2013SenegalCulex poicilipes[123]
 Cavally2016GhanaAedes aegypti[115]
 Cavally2004Côte d’IvoireAedes harrisoni[124]
 Nse2004Côte d’IvoireCulex nebulosus[125]
 Meno2004Côte d’IvoireUranotaenia chorleyi[125]
 Hana2004Côte d’IvoireCulex sp[125]
 Moumo2004Côte d’IvoireCulex sp[125]
Totiviridae     
 Aedes aegypti totivirus2016GhanaAedes aegypti[115]
Reoviridae     
 Aedes pseudoscutellaris reovirus2015GhanaAedes aegypti[115]
 Cimodo2008Côte d’IvoireCulex nebulosus[126]
Phenuiviridae     
 Phasi Charoen-like phasivirus2016GhanaAedes aegypti[115]
 Gouleako2004Côte d’IvoireCulex sp[127]
Negeviruses **     
 Dezidougou1984Côte d’IvoireAedes aegypti[128]
Iflaviridae     
 Aedes vexans iflavirus2017SenegalAedes vexans[129]
Permutotetraviridae     
 Culex permutotetra-like virus2016GhanaCulex sp[115]
Nodaviridae     
 Mosinovirus2004Côte d’IvoireCulicidae[130]
Xinmoviridae     
 Bolahun virus variant 22012/15LiberiaAnopheles gambiae[116]
Unclassified ***    
Unclassified RiboviriaBolahun virus variant 12012/15Burkina FasoAnopheles gambiae[116]
Unclassified RiboviriaAedes aegypti virga-like virus2016GhanaAedes aegypti[115]
Unclassified RiboviriaWest Accra2015GhanaAedes aegypti[115]
Unclassified RiboviriaMole Culex2016GhanaCulex sp[115]
Unclassified RiboviriaGoutanap2004Côte d’IvoireCulex nebulosus[131]
Unclassified RiboviriaGoutanap2016GhanaCulex sp[115]
Unclassified RiboviriaTesano Aedes2016GhanaAedes aegypti[115]
Unclassified RiboviriaKorle-bu Aedes2016GhanaAedes aegypti[115]

* = Year of research publication used; ** = Proposed taxon [128]; *** = Unclassified viruses; Year/Year = Study period.

The presence of flaviviruses in West Africa is not limited to MSVs, but also medically important MBVs, such as DENV, WNV, ZIKV, YFV, and Usutu virus (USUV). McNamara et al. seem to provide the first report on mosquito-borne flaviviruses, including YFV, WNV, ZIKV, and Uganda S virus in the 1950s [83]. West Africa has experienced several outbreaks of DENV and it is the main MBV circulating in the human population and posed a major public health threat. It is likely that the first detection of DENV in West Africa was in Ibadan, Nigeria in 1964 from febrile patients [42]. However, the most recent outbreak of DENV was reported in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso in 2017 [59]. In addition to DENV outbreaks in Burkina Faso, there were reports in other countries, such as Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Benin, Mali, Cape Verde, Ghana, Mauritania, and Guinea in a decreasing order of incidence. Therefore, Burkina Faso had several DENV reports unlike other West African countries. The main vectors for DENV are 

The presence of flaviviruses in West Africa is not limited to MSVs, but also medically important MBVs, such as DENV, WNV, ZIKV, YFV, and Usutu virus (USUV). McNamara et al. seem to provide the first report on mosquito-borne flaviviruses, including YFV, WNV, ZIKV, and Uganda S virus in the 1950s [116]. West Africa has experienced several outbreaks of DENV and it is the main MBV circulating in the human population and posed a major public health threat. It is likely that the first detection of DENV in West Africa was in Ibadan, Nigeria in 1964 from febrile patients [132]. However, the most recent outbreak of DENV was reported in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso in 2017 [133]. In addition to DENV outbreaks in Burkina Faso, there were reports in other countries, such as Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Benin, Mali, Cape Verde, Ghana, Mauritania, and Guinea in a decreasing order of incidence. Therefore, Burkina Faso had several DENV reports unlike other West African countries. The main vectors for DENV are 

Aedes

 mosquitoes (mainly 

Aedes aegypti

) through which DENV is transmitted to humans (amplifying host). DENV was mainly detected via serological investigations in humans, although 

Ae. aegypti

 mosquitoes were also documented as a source of detection.

2. Togaviridae

Members of this family are enveloped, spherical, icosahedral, and 65–70 nm in diameter. They have a capsid with icosahedral symmetry made of 240 monomers. Additionally, they have a monopartite, linear, ssRNA(+) genome of 9.7–11.8 kb [153]. Alphaviruses are mostly transmitted by mosquito vectors and they have amplifying vertebrate hosts. Acute infections in vertebrates are characterised by a high titer of the virus making it possible for mosquitoes to be infected in the course of blood feeding [154].

Members of this family are enveloped, spherical, icosahedral, and 65–70 nm in diameter. They have a capsid with icosahedral symmetry made of 240 monomers. Additionally, they have a monopartite, linear, ssRNA(+) genome of 9.7–11.8 kb [134]. Alphaviruses are mostly transmitted by mosquito vectors and they have amplifying vertebrate hosts. Acute infections in vertebrates are characterised by a high titer of the virus making it possible for mosquitoes to be infected in the course of blood feeding [135].

Tai Forest alphavirus (TFAV), Eilat virus (EILV), Agua Salud alphavirus (ASALV), and Mwinilunga alphavirus (MWAV) are the main mosquito-specific members of this family [134,155]. However, only TFAV was identified and isolated in West Africa. TFAV was isolated from 

Tai Forest alphavirus (TFAV), Eilat virus (EILV), Agua Salud alphavirus (ASALV), and Mwinilunga alphavirus (MWAV) are the main mosquito-specific members of this family [136][137]. However, only TFAV was identified and isolated in West Africa. TFAV was isolated from 

Culex decens mosquitoes collected in 2004 in Côte d’Ivoire [134]. TFAV has a relationship with western equine encephalitis virus complex through phylogenetic analyses [134].

 mosquitoes collected in 2004 in Côte d’Ivoire [136]. TFAV has a relationship with western equine encephalitis virus complex through phylogenetic analyses [136].

Medically important mosquito-borne alphaviruses that are emerging public health threats include Venezuelan (VEEV) and eastern (EEEV) equine encephalitis viruses, and CHIKV. These viruses can cause outbreaks of severe meningoencephalitis with frequent lethal consequences, or polyarthritis with agonizing and chronic joint pain [154]. Likely, the first epidemic of CHIKV in West Africa occurred in 1969 in Ibadan, Nigeria [105]. It is probable that the virus was first isolated from 

Medically important mosquito-borne alphaviruses that are emerging public health threats include Venezuelan (VEEV) and eastern (EEEV) equine encephalitis viruses, and CHIKV. These viruses can cause outbreaks of severe meningoencephalitis with frequent lethal consequences, or polyarthritis with agonizing and chronic joint pain [135]. Likely, the first epidemic of CHIKV in West Africa occurred in 1969 in Ibadan, Nigeria [138]. It is probable that the virus was first isolated from 

Aedes

 mosquitoes (

Ae. aegypti

, 

Ae. grahami

, and 

Ae. taylori) collected in 1963 in Lagos, Nigeria, and serological survey revealed antibodies in the sera of study participants [104]. The recent detection of CHIKV in West Africa occurred between 2016 and 2017 in Sierra Leone and this was via Ion Torrent semiconductor sequencing to profile pathogen spectrum in archived human yellow fever virus-negative sera [110]. A broader spectrum of pathogens was suggested by the distribution of sequencing reads and must be considered in clinical diagnostics and epidemiological surveillance [110]. Until now, a greater number of cases of CHIKV were reported in Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and Senegal, compared to the very few cases in Ghana, Benin, Mali, and Liberia. In general, CHIKV was mainly detected by serology in humans, although there were a few 

) collected in 1963 in Lagos, Nigeria, and serological survey revealed antibodies in the sera of study participants [139]. The recent detection of CHIKV in West Africa occurred between 2016 and 2017 in Sierra Leone and this was via Ion Torrent semiconductor sequencing to profile pathogen spectrum in archived human yellow fever virus-negative sera [140]. A broader spectrum of pathogens was suggested by the distribution of sequencing reads and must be considered in clinical diagnostics and epidemiological surveillance [140]. Until now, a greater number of cases of CHIKV were reported in Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and Senegal, compared to the very few cases in Ghana, Benin, Mali, and Liberia. In general, CHIKV was mainly detected by serology in humans, although there were a few 

Aedes

 mosquito detections.

3. Peribunyaviridae

These viruses are enveloped, spherical, or pleomorphic virions 80–120 nm in diameter. They have a segmented, linear ssRNA(-) genome, with L segment between 6.8 and 12 kb, M segment between 3.2 and 4.9, and S segment between 1 and 3 kb [156]. This is a newly established family which includes four genera for globally distributed viruses: Orthobunyavirus, Herbevirus, Pacuvirus, and Shangavirus. Mostly, peribunyaviruses are maintained in a vertebrate–arthropod transmission cycle [157].

These viruses are enveloped, spherical, or pleomorphic virions 80–120 nm in diameter. They have a segmented, linear ssRNA(-) genome, with L segment between 6.8 and 12 kb, M segment between 3.2 and 4.9, and S segment between 1 and 3 kb [141]. This is a newly established family which includes four genera for globally distributed viruses: Orthobunyavirus, Herbevirus, Pacuvirus, and Shangavirus. Mostly, peribunyaviruses are maintained in a vertebrate–arthropod transmission cycle [142].

The mosquito-specific members of the family include Ferak virus, Jonchet virus, Herbert virus, and Tai virus. Interestingly, all these MSVs were identified in Côte d’Ivoire [135,136,137]. These viruses were identified via a mosquito surveillance study, where mosquitoes were trapped from February to June 2004 in Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire [158]. The mosquito samples were further analysed to identify and isolate these viruses [135,136,137]. However, the viruses were mainly isolated from 

The mosquito-specific members of the family include Ferak virus, Jonchet virus, Herbert virus, and Tai virus. Interestingly, all these MSVs were identified in Côte d’Ivoire [143][144][145]. These viruses were identified via a mosquito surveillance study, where mosquitoes were trapped from February to June 2004 in Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire [146]. The mosquito samples were further analysed to identify and isolate these viruses [143][144][145]. However, the viruses were mainly isolated from 

Culex

 mosquitoes.

The mosquito-borne members of the 

Peribunyaviridae include Zinga virus, Bunyamwera virus, Arumowot virus, Bwamba virus, Ngari virus, Nyando virus, Pangola virus, Akabane virus, and M’poko virus [1,3]. Bunyamwera virus is the prominent MBV of this family. Bunyamwera virus was first detected in 1963 in West Africa, Nigeria, from 

 include Zinga virus, Bunyamwera virus, Arumowot virus, Bwamba virus, Ngari virus, Nyando virus, Pangola virus, Akabane virus, and M’poko virus [147][148]. Bunyamwera virus is the prominent MBV of this family. Bunyamwera virus was first detected in 1963 in West Africa, Nigeria, from 

Mansonia africana mosquitoes [109]. The virus was also reported to be detected in humans and mosquitoes in Senegal and Guinea respectively [79,83].

 mosquitoes [149]. The virus was also reported to be detected in humans and mosquitoes in Senegal and Guinea respectively [150][116].

4. Other Virus Families

An increasing number of MAVs, especially the mosquito-specific ones, are distributed globally. MAVs were also classified under the following virus families: 

Rhabdoviridae, Mesoniviridae, Totiviridae, Reoviridae, Phenuiviridae, Permutotetraviridae, Iflaviridae

, 

Xinmoviridae, Nodaviridae, and Negeviruses (proposed taxon). The latest mosquito-specific mesonivirus is Dianke virus, which was isolated from mosquitoes in Eastern Senegal [143]. Interestingly, Dianke virus was identified in different species of mosquitoes, including 

, and Negeviruses (proposed taxon). The latest mosquito-specific mesonivirus is Dianke virus, which was isolated from mosquitoes in Eastern Senegal [151]. Interestingly, Dianke virus was identified in different species of mosquitoes, including 

Aedes

 sp, 

Culex

 sp, 

Mansonia

 sp, and 

Uranotaenia

 sp. This explains why mesoniviruses are said to have a broad host range and geographical distribution. Another recent and novel mosquito-specific iflavirus isolated from 

Aedes vexans mosquitoes in Senegal is Aedes vexans iflavirus [149]. 

 mosquitoes in Senegal is Aedes vexans iflavirus [3]. 

Ae. vexans

 mosquito is a competent vector of numerous MBVs, such as RVFV and ZIKV. Therefore, it is possible that Aedes vexans iflavirus could interfere with the replication and transmission potentials of RVFV and ZIKV. This review therefore suggests studies involving the interaction of MSVs with MBVs to answer the search for a probable biological vector control tool against arboviruses.

The medically important mosquito-borne member of the family 

Phenuiviridae, with several reports, is the RVFV. RVFV was reported in Burkina Faso, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, and Mauritania. It is likely that the first report of RVFV was in 1959 in Nigeria [126]. However, the latest RVFV case was detected in 2016 in Mali, Niger, and Nigeria [122,125,127], and this is the first occurrence of RVFV in Niger. RVFV was detected in culicine mosquitoes and serological investigations in humans, bats, livestock, horses, and camels.

, with several reports, is the RVFV. RVFV was reported in Burkina Faso, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, and Mauritania. It is likely that the first report of RVFV was in 1959 in Nigeria [13]. However, the latest RVFV case was detected in 2016 in Mali, Niger, and Nigeria [14][15][16], and this is the first occurrence of RVFV in Niger. RVFV was detected in culicine mosquitoes and serological investigations in humans, bats, livestock, horses, and camels.

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