Mitochondrial Ribosomal Proteins: Comparison
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Mammalian mitochondrial ribosomes translate 13 proteins encoded by mitochondrial genes, all of which play roles in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. After a long period of reconstruction, mitochondrial ribosomes are the most protein-rich ribosomes. Mitochondrial ribosomal proteins (MRPs) are encoded by nuclear genes, synthesized in the cytoplasm and then, transported to the mitochondria to be assembled into mitochondrial ribosomes. MRPs not only play a role in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Moreover, they participate in the regulation of cell state as apoptosis inducing factors. Abnormal expressions of MRPs will lead to mitochondrial metabolism disorder, cell dysfunction, etc. Many researches have demonstrated the abnormal expression of MRPs in various tumors.

  • Mitochondrial Ribosomal Proteins
  • Mitochondrial Ribosome
  • tumor

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1. Introduction

Ribosome is the ribonucleoprotein particle, which is an organelle for protein synthesis in cells, and its function is to synthesize the polypeptide chain efficiently and accurately according to the information of mRNA. Ribosomes can be found in almost all cells and even the smallest and simplest mycoplasma cell contains hundreds of them. At present, only mammalian mature red blood cells have no ribosomes, therefore, ribosomes are an indispensable structure of most cells. Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain ribosomes that synthesize their own proteins, which may be related to the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. The accepted endosymbiotic origin theory holds that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from symbiotic bacteria and cyanobacteria in primitive eukaryotic, respectively. Therefore, mitochondrial ribosomes are more similar to the bacterial ribosomes than to cytoplasmic ribosomes. Mitochondrial ribosomal proteins (MRPs) are encoded by nuclear genes and synthesized by the cytoplasm 80S ribosomes, after specific targeting, sorting, transporting to mitochondria, and then assembling into mitochondrial ribosome small and large subunits with two rRNAs encoded by mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA).

2. MRPs Associated with Diseases

With the research on MRPs, their names have changed [1] [1], as shown in Table Table 11. The table also shows the changes of MRPs in tumor tissues reported in the past 5 years.

Table 1. Summary of the relationship between abnormal expression of mitochondrial ribosomal proteins and their encoding genes with diseases in recent 5 years.

Old NameNew NameCancerOther Diseases
Mitochondrial ribosomal large subunit (mt-LSU) genes and proteins.
MRPL1uL1mLung cancer [2] 
MRPL3uL3m Neurodegeneration and memory impairment [3], Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy [4][5], Prognosis [6], Acute mountain disease [7]
MRPL9bL9mBreast cancer [8] 
MRPL10uL10m Early age-related macular degeneration [9]
MRPL11uL11m Mitochondrial encephalopathy [10] ↓
MRPL12/L7bL12mBreast cancer [11] ↑, Colorectal cancer [12] 
MRPL13uL13mLiver cancer [13] ↓, Breast cancer [13][14][15] ↑ 
MRPL15uL15mBreast cancer [16] ↑ 
MRPL16uL16m Septic cardiomyopathy [17] ↑
MRPL17bL17mLung cancer [18] ↑ 
MRPL19bL19mEndometrial cancer [19][20], Diffuse non-Hodgkin lymphoma [21], Melanoma [22] 
MRPL21bL21mAcute myeloid leukemia [23] ↑ 
MRPL23uL23mOral squamous cell carcinoma [24] ↓, Glioblastoma multiforme [25] 
MRPL24uL24m Cerebellar atrophy, intellectual disability [26] ↓
MRPL28bL28mGastric cancer [27] 
MRPL33bL33mBreast cancer [28] ↑, Lung cancer, colon cancer [29] ↑, Gastric cancer [30], Acute myeloid leukemia and neuroblastoma [31] ↑, Human papillomavirus associated oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma [32] ↑ 
MRPL34bL34m Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↓
MRPL35bL35mGlioblastoma multiforme [34] ↑, Colorectal cancer [35] ↑ 
MRPL36bL36m Cri-du-chat syndrome [36]
MRPL37mL37 Venous thromboembolism [37]
MRPL38mL38Liver cancer [38] 
MRPL39mL39Gastric cancer [39] ↓ 
MRPL40mL40 Schizophrenia [40][41][42] ↓
MRPL42mL42Glioma [43] ↑ 
MRPL43mL43Gastric cancer [44] ↑ 
MRPL44mL44 Mitochondrial encephalopathy [10] ↓, Cardiomyopathy [45][46]. Hemiplegia migraine, pigmentary retinopathy, renal insufficiency, Leigh-like lesions on brain MRI [47], Asthma and allergy-related traits [48]
MRPL46mL46Ovarian cancer [49] 
MRPL47mL47Acute lymphoblastic leukemia [50] 
MRPL50mL50 Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↑
MRPL51mL51Lung cancer [51] ↑ 
MRPL52mL52Colorectal cancer [52] ↓ 
MRPL54mL54Breast cancer [53] 
CRIF1mL64Hepatocellular carcinoma [54] ↓, T-cell leukemia [55]Acute radiation syndrome [56], Endothelial inflammation [57][58] ↓, Autoimmune arthritis [59] ↑
MRPS18-AmL66Liver cancer [60] ↑, Cholangiocarcinoma [61] ↑ 
Mitochondrial ribosomal small subunit (mt-SSU) genes and proteins
MRPS2uS2mGlioblastoma multiforme [25]Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↑
MRPS5uS5m Noise-induced hearing loss and anxiety related behavior changes [62] ↑
MRPS7uS7mOsteosarcoma [63] ↑Primary hypogonadism, primary adrenal failure [64] ↓
MRPS11uS11mUveal melanoma [65] ↑ 
MRPS12uS12mGlioblastoma multiforme [25] 
MRPS14uS14m Perinatal hypertrophic cardiomyopathy [66] ↑
MRPS18-BmS40Prostate cancer [67] ↑, Colorectal carcinoma [68]Tuberculosis [69]
MRPS18-CbS18mBreast cancer [70] ↑Epileptic encephalopathy [71]
MRPS21bS21m Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↑
MRPS22mS22 Epicanthus inversus syndrome [72], Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and fallopian tube lesions [73] ↓, Primary ovarian insufficiency [74][75][76]
MRPS23mS23Hepatocellular carcinoma [77] ↑ 
MRPS34mS34Glioblastoma multiforme [25]Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↓
MRPS37mS37Acute lymphoblastic leukemia [23] ↑ 
MRPS39mS39 Leigh syndrome [78]
Old NameNew NameCancerOther Diseases
Mitochondrial ribosomal large subunit (mt-LSU) genes and proteins.
MRPL1uL1mLung cancer [2] 
MRPL3uL3m Neurodegeneration and memory impairment [3], Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy [4,5], Prognosis [6], Acute mountain disease [7]
MRPL9bL9mBreast cancer [8] 
MRPL10uL10m Early age-related macular degeneration [9]
MRPL11uL11m Mitochondrial encephalopathy [10] ↓
MRPL12/L7bL12mBreast cancer [11] ↑, Colorectal cancer [12] 
MRPL13uL13mLiver cancer [13] ↓, Breast cancer [13,14,15] ↑ 
MRPL15uL15mBreast cancer [16] ↑ 
MRPL16uL16m Septic cardiomyopathy [17] ↑
MRPL17bL17mLung cancer [18] ↑ 
MRPL19bL19mEndometrial cancers [19,20], Diffuse non-Hodgkin lymphoma [21], Melanoma [22] 
MRPL21bL21mAcute myeloid leukemia [23] ↑ 
MRPL23uL23mOral squamous cell carcinoma [24] ↓, Glioblastoma multiforme [25] 
MRPL24uL24m Cerebellar atrophy, intellectual disability [26] ↓
MRPL28bL28mGastric cancer [27] 
MRPL33bL33mBreast cancer [28] ↑, Lung cancer, colon cancer [29] ↑, Gastric cancer [30], Acute myeloid leukemia and neuroblastoma [31] ↑, Human papillomavirus associated oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma [32] ↑ 
MRPL34bL34m Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↓
MRPL35bL35mGlioblastoma multiforme [34] ↑, Colorectal cancer [35] ↑ 
MRPL36bL36m Cri-du-chat syndrome [36]
MRPL37mL37 Venous thromboembolism [37]
MRPL38mL38Liver cancer [38] 
MRPL39mL39Gastric cancer [39] ↓ 
MRPL40mL40 Schizophrenia [40,41,42] ↓
MRPL42mL42Glioma [43] ↑ 
MRPL43mL43Gastric cancer [44] ↑ 
MRPL44mL44 Mitochondrial encephalopathy [10] ↓, Cardiomyopathy [45,46]. Hemiplegia migraine, pigmentary retinopathy, renal insufficiency, Leigh-like lesions on brain MRI [47], Asthma and allergy-related traits [48]
MRPL46mL46Ovarian cancer [49] 
MRPL47mL47Acute lymphoblastic leukemia [50] 
MRPL50mL50 Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↑
MRPL51mL51Lung cancer [51] ↑ 
MRPL52mL52Colorectal cancer [52] ↓ 
MRPL54mL54Breast cancer [53] 
CRIF1mL64Hepatocellular carcinoma [54] ↓, T-cell leukemia [55]Acute radiation syndrome [56], Endothelial inflammation [57,58] ↓, Autoimmune arthritis [59] ↑
MRPS18-AmL66Liver cancer [60] ↑, Cholangiocarcinoma [61] ↑ 
Mitochondrial ribosomal small subunit (mt-SSU) genes and proteins
MRPS2uS2mGlioblastoma multiforme [25]Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↑
MRPS5uS5m Noise-induced hearing loss and anxiety related behavior changes [62] ↑
MRPS7uS7mOsteosarcoma [63] ↑Primary hypogonadism, primary adrenal failure [64] ↓
MRPS11uS11mUveal melanoma [65] ↑ 
MRPS12uS12mGlioblastoma multiforme [25] 
MRPS14uS14m Perinatal hypertrophic cardiomyopathy [66] ↑
MRPS18-BmS40Prostate cancer [67] ↑, Colorectal carcinoma [68]Tuberculosis [69]
MRPS18-CbS18mBreast cancer [70] ↑Epileptic encephalopathy [71]
MRPS21bS21m Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↑
MRPS22mS22 Epicanthus inversus syndrome [72], Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and fallopian tube lesions [73] ↓, Primary ovarian insufficiency [74,75,76]
MRPS23mS23Hepatocellular carcinoma [77] ↑ 
MRPS34mS34Glioblastoma multiforme [25]Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy [33] ↓
MRPS37mS37Acute lymphoblastic leukemia [23] ↑ 
MRPS39mS39 Leigh syndrome [78]

Legend: Prefix “u”: Genes and proteins are present in all kingdoms of life (for universal); prefix “u”: Genes and proteins are bacterial in origin and do not have an eukaryotic (or archaeal) homolog; prefix “m”: Genes and proteins are mitochondrion-specific. “↑” Upregulation in that disease; “↓” downregulation in that disease. This table only lists the MRPs (mitochondrial ribosomal proteins) that appear in this article.

 

 

 

3. Conclusions and Perspectives

The development of a high-precision analysis technology of cryo-electron microscopy enables us to identify the structure of mitochondrial ribosomal proteins with a scale of 0.1 nm. Each of the 80 MRPs is essential for the mitochondrial ribosome composition, which plays an irreplaceable role in the assembly and translation of mitochondrial DNA. At present, studies of the relationship between MRPs and cell apoptosis are few. Although the apoptotic mechanisms of MRPS29, MRPL41 and MRPL65 have not been fully elucidated, they at least provide us with useful information to deeply study the apoptotic mechanisms of MRPs. We can further explore the changes of MRPs function or pathway-activating role in the process of inducing apoptosis, based on the analysis of the MRPs structure. Additionally, specific mechanisms can be clarified in the future.

The abnormal expression of MRPs and their encoding genes is closely associated with a variety of cancer and mitochondrial related diseases. Multiple MRPs are important predictors of disease diagnosis. However, the specific mechanisms of inducing the development of diseases are little known.

In the future, on the one hand, it is very important to strengthen the research on the relationship between the abnormal expression of MRPs, lack of their encoding genes, and diseases. On the other hand, some MRPs such as MRPS22, MRPL44 and MRPL28 that have been clarified as key factors in the development of cancer, which can be as biological targets to deeply study their specific pathways of influence, in order to lay a theoretical foundation for a targeted diagnosis and therapy of cancer in our research.

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