Cement, being one of the most widely utilized materials for construction, plays a crucial role as the primary binder in concrete, leading to the formation of a durable, stone-like, hard material capable of withstanding various loads.
Reference | MAs | Mix Type | Amounts of Substitution (wt.%) | Optimum Substitution (wt.%) | Results for CO2 Emissions |
---|
Reference | Cementitious Material Type | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[463] c | ]. | DCP0 | Control mix | 0.5 | 33.00 | 105.00 | |||
[5] | Global | Improving energy efficiency; use of Afs; clinker substitution by MAs/SCMs; utilization of carbon capture and storage (CCS), alternative clinkers, and alkali-activated materials; and improving the efficiency of cement use. | |||||||
377.00 | 1.000 | Manufacturing Industry |
Sewage sludge [187][188][189][190][191][192][193][194], blast furnace slag [195][196][197][198][199][200], lime sludge [13][201][202], steel slag [199][203][204], stainless steel slag [205], basic oxygen furnace slag [206][207], calcium carbide slag [208], magnesium slag [209], water purification sludge [210], heavy metal-containing sludge [211], electric arc furnace slag [212], fly ash [195][196][198][213][214][215][216][217][218][219][220], red mud [197][221][222][223], oil-based mud [224][225], iron ore tailings [226][227], copper tailings [228], industrial hazardous waste [229], paper pulp waste [230][231], marine bio-refinery waste [232], glass waste [38][233], plastic waste [234], fiber-cement waste [235], black dross leached residue [236], and titanium dioxide waste [237]. | ||||||
DCP50 | 12.5%DCP1 | 0.5 | 33.00 | 102.00 | 337.00 | 0.894 | [80] | Global | Increased use of calcined clay and engineered filler with dispersants, introduction of new Portland clinker-based cement alternatives, use of alkali-activated materials, and improvement of the efficiency of cement use. |
Agricultural and Aquacultural Industries |
Wood ash [238][239], biomass ash [108], sugar filter mud [240][241], pulverized eggshell waste [242], bone ash [119], and pulverized oyster and scallop shell waste [243]. | [16] | |||||||
Natural sources | Global | Basalt rock [102][106][244], natural fluorapatite [245], meta-schist [246Energy savings and the use of CCS and alternative materials (AFs, ARMs, and clinker substitute). | |||||||
] | , Callovo-Oxfordian argillite [247], spent volcanic soil [18], calcined clay [248][249], and spent limestone sorbent [250]. | [14] | Global | ||||||
Other sources | Improving energy efficiency, material substitution, and the use of AFs and CCS. | ||||||||
Municipal solid waste | [251][252][253], contaminated soil [254], and mining waste [255]. | [81] | Global | The use of CCS technologies, reduction of clinker/cement ratio, use of AFs, and pyro-processing improvements. | |||||
[82] | Global | Improving energy efficiency, changing fuel type, the use of CCS, substituting clinker, and improving cement use efficiency. | |||||||
[22] |
Reference | CDW Type | CDW Composition | Raw Mix Designation | Raw Materials (wt %) | CO2 Emission by Ton | CO2 Emission Reductions by Ton | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Limestone | Clay | Schist | Waste | of Raw Mix (kg/t) | of Clinker (kg/t) | of Raw Mix (%) | of Clinker (%) | ||||||||||
[168] | Hydrated cement waste (HCW) | HCW is obtained as a by-product from the efficient separation of fine recycled concrete aggregates. CWp-A is prepared by replacing 30% weight of ordinary Portland powder by HCW. CWp-B is prepared with a higher amount of HCW, 55% in weight. | OPp | 76.00 | - | 24.00 | - | Significant reductions in CO2 emissions connected with clinker/cement production are reported in both scenarios (low or high amounts of HCW). | |||||||||
CWp-A | 53.00 | - | 17.00 | 30.00 | |||||||||||||
DCP100 | 25%DCP1 | 0.5 | 33.00 | 100.50 | 298.00 | 0.790 | |||||||||||
DCP150 | 37.5%DCP1 | 0.5 | 33.00 | 95.50 | 258.00 | 0.684 | |||||||||||
- | 1.510 | - | 50%DCP1 | 4.520 | |||||||||||||
0.5 | 33.00 | 83.00 | [467] | OPC | 23.770 | 4.960 | 4.130 | 60.320 | 2.680 | 0.320 | 0.620 | 2.260 | 2.380 | ||||
219.00 | 0.581 | ||||||||||||||||
[443] c | NAC | Control mix | 0.45 | - | 36.80 | - | 1.000 | RCP | 39.830 | 12.500 | 6.010 | 18.660 | 1.970 | 0.850 | 2.340 | 2.040 | 16.750 |
RP1 | 10%RP | 0.45 | - | 36.00 | - | 0.980Global | Reduction of the clinker/cement ratio and the use of ARMs/AFs, energy efficiency improvements, the use of WHR and CCS, and the replacement of cement in concrete or mortar with alternative materials. | ||||||||||
[468] | OPC | 19.240 | 4.080 | 3.250 | 62.470 | 4.190 | - | - | 4.810 | ||||||||
RP1 | 20%RP | 0.45 | - | 33.50 | - | 0.950 | [83] | Global | Utilization of energy conservation approaches. | ||||||||
RP1 | 30%RP | 0.45 | - | 27.00 | - | 0.930 | |||||||||||
RP2 | 10%RP | 0.45 | - | 35.50 | - | 0.950 | |||||||||||
RP2 | 20%RP | 0.45 | - | 32.00 | - | 0.900 | |||||||||||
RP2 | 30%RP | 0.45 | - | 27.50 | - | 0.850 | |||||||||||
RP3 | 10%RP | 0.45 | - | 34.00 | - | 0.930 | |||||||||||
RP3 | 20%RP | 0.45 | |||||||||||||||
[ | |||||||||||||||||
487] | OPC | ||||||||||||||||
DCP200 | - | ||||||||||||||||
Brick powder | 65.240 | 18.080 | 4.250 | 1.470 | 2.190 | - | - | 0.340 | - | [84] | Global | Utilization of CCS, SCMs, and nanotechnology. | |||||
Concrete powder | 31.850 | 7.040 | 4.840 | 48.950 | 1.850 | - | - | 0.780 | - | [85] | |||||||
[469] | Global | Utilization of WHR, blended cements, efficiency improvements, and CCS. | |||||||||||||||
OPC | 20.040 | 4.198 | 3.365 | 63.058 | 1.930 | 0.092 | 0.748 | 3.276 | 2.653 | [86] | Global | Utilization of CCS. | |||||
HHCW | 29.689 | 7.948 | 2.453 | 31.713 | [10] | Global | Use of low-carbon cement technologies. | ||||||||||
2.728 | 0.842 | [87] | Asia | Improving energy efficiency, the use of AFs, reduction of the clinker-to-cement ratio, and utilization of emerging and innovative technologies (excess heat recovery, CCS, energy management systems, etc.) | |||||||||||||
[21] | China | The use of energy efficiency improvement technology, WHR, CCS, AFs, and clinker substitution. | |||||||||||||||
[88] | China | The use of energy efficiency improvements, AFs, clinker substitution, and CCS. | |||||||||||||||
[89] | China | Utilization of advanced efficiency technologies, ARMs, AFs, renewable electricity, CCS, and cement carbonation effects. | |||||||||||||||
[90] | China | Use of energy efficiency, AFs, ARMs, and CCS. | |||||||||||||||
[91] | Indonesia | The use of clinker substitutes, AFs, and WHR and upgrading kilns. | |||||||||||||||
[92] | Indonesia | Improving energy efficiency and the use of clinker substitution, AFs, and CCS. | |||||||||||||||
[93] | Japan | The use of energy and material efficiency strategies, AFs, reducing clinker-to-cement ratios, lowering transportation emissions, and decarbonizing electricity supply. | |||||||||||||||
[94] | Japan | Reuse of building material waste. | |||||||||||||||
[39] | Malaysia | The use of energy-efficient technologies, WHR, AFs (fuel switching/co-processing), alternative binders, and CCS. | |||||||||||||||
[95] | Thailand | The use of WHR. | |||||||||||||||
[38] | Hong Kong | The use of Afs and ARMs and the application of combined strategies. | |||||||||||||||
[96] | USA | Improving energy efficiency. | |||||||||||||||
[2] | Portugal | Use of alternative clinker technologies. | |||||||||||||||
[97] | Poland | Improving energy efficiency and the use of waste as raw materials and MAs in cement production. | |||||||||||||||
[98] | Italy and Germany | The use of AFs and ARMs. | |||||||||||||||
[99] | Sweden | The use of CCS. |
Sector | Contribution | ||
---|---|---|---|
CaO | MgO | Na | 2 |
Construction Industry |
CDW [44][158][159][160][161][162], concrete waste [26][163][164][165][166][167], cement waste [168][169][170], recycled aggregates (RAs) [171][172], marble and brick waste [173], cement kiln dust [174][175], ceramic wastes [176][177][178], recycled mortar or paste [179], cellular concrete [180], asbestos cement tile waste [181], inorganic construction waste | ||
CWp-B |
MA | Mix Type | Optimum Substitution (wt.%) | References | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
O | K | 2 | O | SO | 3 | Loss-on-Ignition (LOI) | |||||||||||
Agricultural Industry | |||||||||||||||||
−5 | , and 2.1 × 10 | −5 | respectively. | ||||||||||||||
[426] | Brick dust (BD) and LP | Plain cement concrete | BD/LP: 15/5, 10/10, 7/13, 5/15 | 15/5 | |||||||||||||
[463] | OPC | 19.383 | 4.581 | Using PL and BD can save costs of cement in the range of 7–12.5%, which | 3.282 eventually reduces CO2. |
||||||||||||
63.074 | 2.786 | 0.175 | 1.027 | 3.498 | 1.540 | Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) | Ordinary concrete | [365<25 | ] | CNSA | [427Ordinary concrete[297][298][299][300][301][302][303][304][305] | ][306] | Biomass fly ash (BFA) and coal fly ash (CFA)5, 10, 15, 20 | 10 | Ordinary concrete | BFA/CFA: 10/10, 20/20, 30/30 | 30/30The embodied carbon of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% CSA is 4%, 7%, 11%, and 15% lower than that of the control mix. |
GWP impact values (kg CO | 2 | eq) are 7.84 × 10 | 2 | for the control mix, 6.62 × 10 | |||||||||||||
DCP | 225.00 | - | |||||||||||||||
for 10/10, 5.38 × 10 | 2 | for 20/20, and 4.15 × 10 | 2 | for 30/30. | |||||||||||||
19.967 | 4.997 | Eco-friendly concrete | [421]<30 | RHA20.00 | [30755.00 | ||||||||||||
] | [ | 308][309] | Calcium aluminate | [428 cement concrete |
2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 | 5 | ] | SCBA and CSA | Ultra-high-strength concrete5%RHA could reduce CO | SBA/CSA: 10/2, 20/2, 30/2, 10/4, 20/4, 30/4, 10/6, 20/6, 30/6, 10/8, 20/8, 30/82 emissions by 18.75%. | |||||||
20/4 | Considering the cost/MPa, the results show that the use of 20/4 had a higher lower cost per m | 3 | in comparison with all concrete mixture. The reduction in concrete cost was 18.50% compared to the control mix. | [44] | Civil construction waste (CCW) | Reusable or recyclable aggregate waste materials, such as soil from earthworks, bricks, tiles, cladding plates, mortar, concrete, and curbs, are used for CCW. CCW0–10: concrete (1%), mortar (47%), rock (2%), ceramic (13%), and soil (37%); CCW10–20: concrete (41%), mortar (39%), rock (13%), and ceramic (7%); CCW20–40: concrete (57%), mortar (34%), rock (7%), and ceramic (2%). | C-REF | 93.20 | 6.80 | - | |||||||
Self-compacting concrete | 15 | 328.00 | 500.00 | - | - | ||||||||||||
[305] | [ | 310] | SDA | Ordinary concrete | 5, 10, 15, 20 | <20 | Embodied carbon (kg CO2/kg) for SDA is 0.0014. The embodied carbon of concrete mixtures incorporating 20% SDA is approximately 20% lower than that of the concrete mixtures incorporating PC as the only binder. | C-CCW-1 | |||||||||
Ultra-high-strength concrete | 85.71 | - | 15–30 | [311] | [312]14.29 | [313]326.00 | 488.00 | 0.60 | 2.40 | ||||||||
C-CCW-4 | 89.53 | - | |||||||||||||||
Rice husk ash (RHA) | Ordinary concrete | 10–25 | [314]10.47 | [318.00 | 471.80 | 3153.00 | 5.60 | ||||||||||
] | [ | 316 | ][317][318] | C-CCW0–10 | 90.14 | - | 9.86 | 312.00 | 459.50 | 4.90 | |||||||
Eco-friendly concrete | 5–15 | [319 | 8.10 | ||||||||||||||
] | [ | 320][321][322][323] | C-CCW10–20 | 90.90 | - | 9.10 | 324.00 | 488.00 | 1.20 | 2.40 | |||||||
C-CCW20–40 | 90.50 | - | 9.50 | 325.00 | 488.00 | 0.90 | 2.40 | ||||||||||
[181] | Asbestos cement tile waste (ACW) | ACW in the form of aged tiles extracted from a roof. | CL-AC0 | ||||||||||||||
340 | |||||||||||||||||
4.125 | 62.405 | [429] | Corn cob ash (CCA) and glass powder (GP) as binary cementitious material (BCM) | Ordinary concrete | CCA/GP: 2.5/2.5, 5/5, 7.5/7.5, 10/10 | 5/5 | Concrete mixtures incorporating 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% BCM as partial replacement of Portland cement have 4.3%, 8.3%, 12.7%, and 16.8% lower embodied carbon control than the mixtures without BCM. Similarly, the incorporation of BCM into the mixtures led to a reduction of approximately 21% in the embodied energy of the concrete. | [ | |||||||||
1.849305] | SCBA | Portland fly ash cement concrete |
50, 60, 70 | [391]50 | Mixed cathode ray tubes (CRT) and mixed-container glass (MRF) |
Ordinary concrete | MRF/CRT: 17/3The CO] | ||||||||||
2 | -eq intensity values of control mix, BA50, BA60 and BA70 concretes were 9.65, 6.17, 6.73, and 7.67 kg CO | 2 | M-3/MPa, respectively. | ||||||||||||||
17/3 | The GWP value is 1040 kg CO | 2 | [316] | Ultra-high-performance concrete | 20, 40, 60, 80 | 60 | The best environmental assessment results occur when the SCBA substitution rate is 80%. The global warming potential data decreased by 17.47%. | ||||||||||
-eq. for the control mix and 849 kg CO | 2 | -eq for 17/3. | |||||||||||||||
[341] | POFA and ESP | Eco-friendly structural foamed concrete | POFA/ESP: 20/5, 20/10, 20/15, 25/5, 25/10, 25/15 | 25/5 | CO2 emissions (kg CO2/m3) are 453.97 for control mix, 358.29 for 20/5, 339.61 for 20/10, 320.93 for 20/15, 339.04 for 25/5, 320.36 for 25/10, and 301.68 for 25/15. | [381] | |||||||||||
[430 | Ceramic | ] | Cane bagasse ash (CBA) and waste glass (WG)Ultra-high-performance concrete | 15, 25, 35, 45, 55 | 25–35 | Compared to UHPC without CTWP, the energy intensity, and CO | Green concrete2 emissions of UHPC with 55% CTWP were reduced by 41.0% and 33.1%, respectively. | CBA/WG: 15/5, 10/10, 5/15 | 15/5 | Replacement of 20% of cement with CBA and WG showed reductions in CO2 emissions of about 20% compared to control mix.Self-compacting concrete | Eco-friendly structural foamed concrete | ||||||
[ | 5–15 | 422][324] | CLBA[325][326] | ||||||||||||||
Ordinary concrete | 10, 20, 30, 40 | <40 | CO | Ultra-high-performance concrete | 20 | [94.53 | 5.47 | - | 335.00 | 503.76 | - | - | |||||
CL-AC24 | 72.05 | 3.94 | 24.01 | - | - | - | - | ||||||||||
CL-AC49 | 48.82 | 2.36 | 48.82 | 319.01 | 468.45 | 4.77 | 7.00 | ||||||||||
CL-AC74 | 24.82 | 0.72 | 74.46 | 303.06 | 434.84 | 9.53 | 13.68 | ||||||||||
CL-AC86 | 14.24 | - | 85.76 | - | - | - | - |
2 | ||||||||||||
released from limestone calcination is 0.37 kg for the control sample (CAC0), 0.33 kg for CAC10, 0.29 kg for CAC20, 0.26 kg for CAC30, and 0.22 kg for CAC40. | ||||||||||||
[ | ||||||||||||
309 | ||||||||||||
] | ||||||||||||
SCBA and SF | Ecofriendly | |||||||||||
327 | ] | [328] | ||||||||||
ternary concrete | SCBA/SF: 10/10, 20/20, 30/30, 40/40, 50/50 | 30/30 and 20/20 | Pervious concrete | 10–15 | ||||||||
1.078 | ||||||||||||
0.685 | 21.986 | |||||||||||
[470] | GR-RMA | 60.000 | 19.000 | 6.000 | - | - | - | - | - | |||
25 | ||||||||||||
The use of ETC concretes has a very significant sustainability impact by contributing to the reduction in CO | [395] | [329] | ||||||||||
- | ||||||||||||
[472] | OPC | 21.300 | 3.200 | 2.900 | 64.300 | 2.100 | 0.260 | 0.420 | -3.100 | [341] | ||
Lightweight concrete | 10–15 | [342] | ||||||||||
1.350 | ||||||||||||
31.50 | - | RCP | 51.000 | 10.130 | 5.360 | 26.310 | 1.380 | 1.230 | 1.780 | 1.940 | 9.900 | |
RBP | 69.870 | 20.980 | 3.610 | 0.400 | 0.390 | 0.590 | 2.420 | 0.330 | 0.980 | Sustainable lightweight foamed concrete | 20 | [343] |
[448] | OPC | 19.900 | 4.420 | 3.560 | 64.900 | 0.660 | 0.080 | 0.790 | 2.670 | - | ||
RP | 57.010 | 10.930 | 3.450 | 21.300 | 1.820 | 1.580 | 2.220 | 1.170 | - | |||
21.700 | 5.100 | 3.400 | 65.000 | 1.400 | 0.300 | 0.550 | 1.500 | 1.050 | ||||
CKD | 11.690 | 3.250 | 2.400 | 44.900 | 0.800 | 0.290 | 0.500 | 0.000 | 36.000 |
Reference | Label | Proportions | w/b a | SP b | 28 d Compressive Strength (MPa) | CO2 Emission (kg/m | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.850 | |||||||||
RP3 | |||||||||
30%RP | |||||||||
0.45 | |||||||||
- | |||||||||
27.50 | |||||||||
- | 0.780 | ||||||||
[464] | NAC | Control mix | 0.56 | 1.0–1.5% | 46.60 | 269.83 | 1.000 | ||
N10/0 | |||||||||
Sustainable foamed concrete | 15 | [344] | |||||||
Self-compacting concrete | <70 | [345][346][347][348] | |||||||
2 | emissions caused by Portland cement. | FA | |||||||
[431] | Limestone filler (LSF), calcined orange illitic clay (OIC), natural pozzolan (NP) and GGBS | Ordinary concrete | LSF/OIC: 20/7.5. LF/NP: 12.4/12.6. LF/GGBS: 6/22; 11/11 | 20% of LF | CO2 emissions (kg CO2/m3) for control mix is 399.8, 378.6 for 20/7.5, 380.6 for 12.4/12.6, 322.6 for 6/22, 341.7 for 11/11. | ||||
[396] | FA and LP | Self-consolidating concrete | FA/LP: 30/15, 40/15, 50/15, 60/15, 20/25, 30/25, 40/25, 50/25 | <50% | CO2-eq (kg/m3) for control mix is 5.69 × 102, 3.33 × 102 for 30/15, 2.82 × 102 for 40/15, 2.32 × 102 for 50/15, 1.83 × 102 for 60/15, 3.32 × 102 for 20/25, 2.81 × 102 for 30/25, 2.31 × 102 for 40/25, 1.82 × 102 for 50/25. | [ | Self-consolidating high-strength concrete | <50 | [349][350] |
425] | Limestone | Ordinary concrete | 35–65 | <50 | The production of concretes made of limestone-rich cements exhibited roughly 25% less CO2 emissions. | ||||
[396] | Self-compacting concrete | 15, 25 | <25 | For control mix, CO2-eq is 5.69 × 102 kg/m3. For 15% and 25% replacement levels, CO2-eq is 4.87 × 102 and 25 4.34 × 10 | Structural lightweight aggregate concrete | 37.5 | [351] | ||
Recycled aggregate concrete | 20 | [330][331] | |||||||
Palm oil clinker powder (POCP) | Environmentally friendly lightweight concrete | 15 | [352] | ||||||
Lightweight concrete | 15 | [353 |
Reference | CDW Type | Mix Type | Materials Used in the Mix | Treatment Method | Particle Size or Median Particle Size of CDW (d50) | Amount of Substitution (wt.%) | Optimum Substitution (wt.%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[463] | Dehydrated cement paste (DCP) | Green ultra-high-performance concrete | Cement (PO 52.5), DCP, LP, SF, sand, superplasticizer (SP). | Heating | <75 μm | 12.5, 25, 37.5, 50 | <25 | |||||
[443] | RP | Ordinary concrete | Cement (OPC), RP, natural coarse aggregate (NCA), natural fine aggregate (NFA). | Repeated recycling | <150 μm | 10, 20, 30 | 10–20 | |||||
0.137 | 0.781 | 2.949 | 2.261 | [464] | Ground recycled concrete (GRC) | |||||||
[464 | Structural concrete | ] | OPCCement (OPC), GRC, mixed recycled CDW aggregate. | NA | 18.700 | 5.100 | 2.600Not stated | 10, 25 | 10 | |||
65.100 | 1.800 | 0.200 | 0.500 | 3.000 | 2.500 | [465] | Recycled brick powder (RBP) | Ultra-high-performance concrete | Cement (PII 52.5R), RBP, SF sand, SP. | |||
GRC | 46.100 | 3.800 | 1.500 | NA | d50: 9.8 μm | 15, 30, 45 | 15 | |||||
40.000 | 0.500 | 0.300 | 1.200 | 0.400 | 6.200 | [438] | RP | Ordinary concrete | ||||
[466] | WBP | 36.510 | Cement (OPC), RP, FA, sand, NCA, water reducing agent. | NA | d50: 9.06 μm | 15, 30, 45 | 23.44015–30 | |||||
] | ||||||||||||
15.140 | 4.530 | - | [466] | Waste brick powder (WBP) | Ordinary concrete | Cement (OPC-Grade C-53), WBP, natural aggregate (NA), sand. | NA | <75 μm | 5, 10 | 10 | ||
10%GRC | ||||||||||||
0.58 | ||||||||||||
1.0–1.5% | 37.80 | 249.65 | 0.925 | |||||||||
N25/0 | 25%GRC | 0.60 | 1.0–1.5% | 27.70 | 218.43 | 0.810 | ||||||
R0/50 | 0%GRC, 50% RA-CDW | 0.59 | 1.0–1.5% | 34.80 | 267.10 | 0.990 | ||||||
R10/50 | 10%GRC, 50% RA-CDW | 0.61 | 1.0–1.5% | 32.80 | 246.94 | 0.915 | ||||||
R25/50 | 25%GRC, 50% RA-CDW | 0.63 | 1.0–1.5% | 23.30 | 216.70 | 0.803 | ||||||
[467] c | RCP0 | Control mix | 0.16 | 41.64 | 100.00 | 502.63 | 1.000 | |||||
RCP15 | 15%RCP | 0.16 | 40.06 | 82.80 | 501.75 | 0.998 | ||||||
RCP30 | 30%RCP | 0.16 | 39.08 | 96.10 | 500.86 | 0.996 | ||||||
Recycled aggregate concrete | 15 | [ | ||||||||||
RCP45 | 330 | ][331] | ||||||||||
45%RCP | 0.16 | 37.13 | 88.30 | 499.27 | 0.993 | Eggshell powder (ESP) | Ordinary concrete | 10–15 | [354] | |||
[468] | [ | 355 | ][356] | RAPC-0–0[357][358] | ||||||||
Control mix | 0.49 | 0.14 | 39.04 | - | 1.000 | Green concrete | 10–15 | [16][322] | ||||
RAPC-0–15 | 15%RPEco-friendly structural foamed concrete | 5 | [341] | |||||||||
Green structural concrete | 20, 40, 60, 80, 98 | <80 | Compared to commercial Grade 45 concrete, the proposed concrete shows a reduction in CO | 2 | 0.49 | 0.16 | 40.12 | - | 0.850 | |||
RAPC-0–30 | 30%RP | 0.49 | 0.17 | 35.45 | - | 0.710 | Sustainable foamed concrete | 5 | ||||
RAPC-0–45 | [ | 344] | ||||||||||
45%RP | 0.49 | 0.16 | 30.27 | - | 0.560 | Olive waste ash (OWA) | Ordinary concrete | 5 | [359] | |||
High-strength concrete | 5 | [332] | ||||||||||
emission of around 70%. | Sawdust ash (SDA) | Ordinary concrete | 5–20 | [360][361] | ||||||||
Self-compacting concrete | 10 | [362][363] | ||||||||||
Coconut shell ash (CNSA) | Ordinary concrete | 10 | [364][365] | |||||||||
Wheat straw ash (WSA) | Ordinary concrete | 5 | [316] | |||||||||
Nano-POFA | Ordinary concrete | 10–20 | [366] | |||||||||
Lightweight concrete | 15 | [353] | ||||||||||
Nano-POCP | Semi-lightweight concrete | 10 | [367] | |||||||||
Nano-ESP | Ordinary concrete | 12.5 | [366] | |||||||||
High-strength concrete | 5 | [368] | ||||||||||
Aquacultural Industry | ||||||||||||
Seashell powder (SSP) | Ordinary concrete | |||||||||||
[467] | Recycled concrete powder (RCP) | Green ultra-high-performance concrete | Cement (P.II 52.5R), RCP, SF, sand, SP. | NA | d50: 12.04 μm | 15, 30, 45 | 30 | |||||
[468] | RP | Green concrete | Cement (PO 42.5), RP (brick powder and concrete powder), NA, RA, river sand, SP. | NA | d50: 17.15 μm | 15, 30, 45 | 15 | |||||
[469] | Humid hardened concrete waste (HHCW) | Ordinary concrete | Cement (OPC- PI 52.5), HHCW, FA, GGBFS, machine-made sand, river sand, crushed stone, SP. | Multiple wet grinding | d50: 26.5 μm, 5.71 μm, and 2.52 μm | 5, 10, 15 | HHCWS of 2.52 μm at the dosage of 10% | |||||
[470] | Ground recycled masonry aggregate (GR-RMA) | Ordinary concrete | Cement (CEM I 42.5 R OPC), GR-RMA, NA, MRA, natural sand, SP. | NA | Not stated | 25 | 25% GR and 25–50% MRA |
Recycled aggregate concrete | 20 | [330][331] | ||
[471] | RCP | Ordinary concrete | Cement (CEM I 42.5), RCP, NA, SP. | Wood waste ash (WWA) | Ordinary concrete | 10 | [332][333][334][335][336] | |||||
Self-compacting concrete | 10 | [337] | ||||||||||
NA | d50: 22μm | 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 | <10% | |||||||||
[472] | RP | Sustainable concrete | Cement (OPC), RP (RCP, RBP), NCA, NFA, FA, GGFBS, air entrainer admixture, water reducer admixture. | NA | d50: RCP: 11.8 μm, RBP: 13.4 μm | 20 | RBP can provide equivalent strength and even better durability. |
|||||
[473] | WP | WP concrete | Cement (OPC), WP (mixture of waste concrete and bricks), NA, sand. | NA | d50: 12.54 μm | 15, 30, 45 | 15 | Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) | Ordinary concrete | |||
[474] | 10–20 | [ | 338][339 | RP] | Reactive powder concrete[ | Cement (PO 42.5), RP (abandoned clay bricks and cement solids), SF, SP. | NA | d50: 31.4 μm | 5, 10, 15, 25 | 10 | ||
[475] | Waste concrete powder (WCP) | Self-consolidating concrete | Cement (OPC), WCP, GGBFS, NCA, NFA, SP. | NA | d50: 90 μm | 15, 30, 45 | 15 | |||||
[476] | RP | Ordinary concrete | Cement (OPC), RP (80% fired brick and 20% waste concrete), NA, sand, water reducer. | NA | <75 μm | 15, 30, 45 | <30% | |||||
[477] | Waste brick powder (WBP) | Ordinary concrete | Cement (type II OPC), WBP, NCA, sand. | NA | d50: 45 μm | 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40 | <20% | |||||
[478] | Cement kiln dust (CKD) | Ordinary concrete | Cement (ASTM C 150 Type I and Type V), CKD, NCA, sand. | NA | not stated | 5, 10, 15 | 5 | |||||
[479] | CKD | Self-consolidating Concrete | Cement (OPC Type I), CKD, NCA, sand, SP. | NA | not stated | 10, 20, 30, 40 | 20 | 5–15 | [369][370][371][372] | |||
[448] | RP | High-strength concrete | 5 | [373] | ||||||||
Oyster shell powder (OSP) | Ordinary concrete | 5–15 | [374] | |||||||||
Green concrete | <20 | [375] | ||||||||||
Periwinkle shell (PS) | Ordinary concrete | 5 | [376] | |||||||||
Scallop shell (SLS) | Ordinary concrete | <10 | [377] | |||||||||
Manufacturing Industry | ||||||||||||
Red ceramic waste (RCW) | Structural concrete | 20–40 | [378] | |||||||||
Ceramic waste powder (CWP) | Ordinary concrete | 10–20 | [379] | |||||||||
Self-consolidating concrete | 15 | [380] | ||||||||||
High-performance concrete | 25–35 | [381][382] | ||||||||||
Recycled glass powder (RGP) | Ordinary concrete | 10–20 | [383][384][385][386][387][388][389][390] | |||||||||
Environmentally friendly concrete | Porcelain Tile Polishing Residue (PPR) | Ordinary concrete | 10–40 | [403] | ||||||||
[397] | High-strength concrete | 30, 40 | 30–40 | The replacement of FA0 with FA30 and FA40 could potentially reduce the carbon footprint by 22.1% and 21.9% per m3 of concrete, respectively. | ||||||||
[423] | Ordinary concrete | 25 | 25 | Fly ash was found to be capable of reducing concrete CO2 emissions by 13% to 15% in typical concrete mixes. | ||||||||
[423] | GGBFS | Ordinary concrete | 40 | 40 | Replacing 40% of GGBS with Portland cement in 25 or 32 MPa concrete outputs results in a 22% reduction in CO2 emissions. | |||||||
[403] | PPR | Ordinary concrete | 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 | 10–30 | For a compressive strength of 54 MPa at 91 days, the emission was reduced from 564 kg CO2-eq/m3 of concrete for the reference mixture to 473 kg CO2-eq/m3 of concrete (i.e., 16%) for 30% replacement and to 349 kg CO2-eq/m3 of concrete (i.e., 38%) for 50% addition. | |||||||
RAPC-30–0 | 30%RA + 0%RP | 0.49 | 0.14 | 41.17 | - | 1.000 | ||||||
Self-compacting concrete | ||||||||||||
[404] | Self-compacting concrete | 10, 20, 30 | <20 | For a compressive strength of 70 MPa, the incorporation of PPR would reduce the emission of CO2-eq/m3 of concrete by up to 17% when incorporating 127 kg of the residue per m3 of concrete. | ||||||||
[424] | SF | High-strength concrete | 8, 10, 12 | 12 | The climate change index for reference concrete is 534.26 kg CO2eq. Values for HSC-SF8, HSC-SF10, and HSC-SF12 are 520.75, 495.11 and 453.15, respectively. | RAPC-30–15 | 30%RA + 15%RP | 0.49 | 0.16 | 43.29 | - | 0.850 |
RAPC-30–30 | 25 | |||||||||||
[424] | Nano silica (NS) | High-strength concrete | 1, 2, 3 | 2 | The climate change index for reference concrete is 534.26 kg CO2eq. The climate change index for HSC-NS1, HSC-NS2, and HSC-NS3 is 438.55, 426.70, and 415.56, respectively. | Sustainable recycled concrete | Cement (PO42.5), RP, FA, NCA, NFA, river sand, SP. | NA | <45 μm | 15, 30 | 15 | |
[480] | Ceramic (fired clay-based) fraction of CDW | Structural concrete | Cement (CEM I 42.5 R), ceramic (fired clay-based) fraction of CDW, NCA, RA, sand, SP. | NA | not stated | 25, 50 | 25 | |||||
[481] | CKD | High performance self-compacting concrete | Cement (OPC), CKD, NCA, mineral sand, SP. | NA | <50 μm | 10, 20, 30 | <10% | |||||
[482] | Burnt clay and CKD | 30%RA + 30%RP | 0.49 | 0.17 | 37.45 | - | 0.700 | |||||
RAPC-30–45 | 30%RA + 30%RP | 0.49 | 0.16 | 31.32 | - | 0.560 | ||||||
RAPC-50–0 | 50%RA + 0%RP | 25 | [391][392] | |||||||||
[ | ||||||||||||
[347] | POFA | Self-compacting concrete | 50, 60, 70 | 50–70 | 0.49 | Self-compacting concrete | 24 | [393] | ||||
Fly ash (FA) | Ordinary concrete | 30 | [394][395] | |||||||||
The concrete specimens have up to 32–45% reduced carbon dioxide emissions. | 0.14 | 36.44 | - | 0.990 | ||||||||
RAPC-50–15 | 50%RA + 15%RP | Self-compacting concrete | 10–55 | [324][396] | ||||||||
0.49 | 0.16 | Pervious concrete | 10–15 | [329] | ||||||||
37.28 | High-performance concrete | 30 | [397][398] | |||||||||
- | Granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) | Ordinary concrete | <50 | [399] | ||||||||
Recycled aggregate concrete | <20 | [400] | ||||||||||
Steel slag (SS) | Ordinary concrete | 20 | [401] | |||||||||
High-early-strength concrete | 30 | [402] | ||||||||||
Silica fume (SF) | Ordinary concrete | 10 | [357] | |||||||||
0.850 | Self-compacting concrete | 10 | [324] | |||||||||
Recycled aggregate concrete | 10 | [400] | ||||||||||
404 | ] | |||||||||||
Electric Arc Furnace Dust (EAFD) | Ordinary concrete | 10 | [405] | |||||||||
Red mud (RM) | Ordinary concrete | 12 | [406] | |||||||||
Sustainable concrete | 10–15 | [407] | ||||||||||
Sewage sludge ash (SSA) | Ordinary concrete | 10 | [408] | |||||||||
Waste marble dust (WMD) | Ordinary concrete | <15 | [317][409] |
Reference | MA | Mix Type | Amounts of Substitution (wt.%) | Optimum Substitution (wt.%) | Results for CO2 Emmisions | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[420] | Biochar rice husk (BRH) | Ordinary concrete | 5, 10, 15, 20 | Not stated | Global warming values (kg CO2eq) for BRH0%, BRH5%, BRH10%, BRH15% and BRH20% are 2.51 × 10−5, 2.41 × 10−5, 2.3 × 10 | |||||
] | ||||||||||
[ | ||||||||||
342 | ||||||||||
] | ||||||||||
Lightweight concrete | ||||||||||
5, 10, 15, 20, 25 | ||||||||||
10–15 | ||||||||||
Total CO | ||||||||||
2 | ||||||||||
emission values for mixes M0, M5, M10, M15, M20, and M25 were 0.477, 0.454, 0.430, 0.407, 0.384, and 0.361 CO | ||||||||||
Blended concrete | ||||||||||
Cement (OPC), burnt clay and CKD, NCA, NFA. | ||||||||||
NA | ||||||||||
<75 μm | 10, 20, 30, 40 | <20%CKD | ||||||||
[483] | CKD | Ordinary concrete | Cement (cement of Indian Standards (IS) mark 43 grade), CKD, NCA, NFA. | Bacterial treatment | not stated | 5, 10, 15 | 10% | |||
[484] | Clay brick powder (CBP) | Ordinary concrete | Cement (OPC), CBP (Recycled construction waste), natural sand. | NA | d50: 300 μm, 100 μm, 60 μm and 40 μm | 10, 20, 25, 30 | 10% | |||
[485] | Construction waste composite powder | Small-scale prefabricated concrete | Cement (42.5 OPC), CWBP (building demolition waste), NCA, sand. | NA | d50: 8–16 μm | 20, 30, 40 | 30 | |||
[ | ||||||||||
410 | ||||||||||
] | ||||||||||
2 | -e/m | 3 | , respectively.[486] | GRC | Ordinary concrete | Cement (CEM I 42.5 R), GRC, NCA, MRA. | NA | <147 μm | 10, 25 | 25 |
RAPC-50–30 | ||||||||||
50%RA + 30%RP | 0.49 | 0.17 | 33.56 | - | 0.700 | |||||
RAPC-50–45 | 50%RA + 45%RP | 0.49 | 0.16 | 29.56 | - | 0.550 | ||||
High-strength concrete | ||||||||||
15 | ||||||||||
[ | ||||||||||
411 | ||||||||||
] | ||||||||||
Titanium dioxide (TiO | ||||||||||
2 | ||||||||||
) nanoparticles | ||||||||||
Blended cement concrete | ||||||||||
3 | ||||||||||
[ | ||||||||||
412 | ||||||||||
] | ||||||||||
RAPC–100–0 | ||||||||||
Coal bottom ash (CBA) | ||||||||||
Sustainable concrete | ||||||||||
Others | ||||||||||
−5 | 100%RA + 0%RP | 0.49 | 0.14 | 33.26 | ||||||
15 | ||||||||||
[ | ||||||||||
413 | ||||||||||
] | ||||||||||
Limestone powder (LP) | ||||||||||
Self-consolidating concrete | ||||||||||
55 | ||||||||||
[ | 396 | ] | ||||||||
Ultra-high-performance concrete | ||||||||||
[487] | CKD | Green concrete | Cement (OPC Type II), CKD, FA, river sand, NCA, SP. | NA | <45 μm | 54 | [417] | |||
Metakaolin (MK) | High-performance concrete | 10 | [398] | |||||||
, 2.2 × 10 | ||||||||||
10, 15, 20, 30, 40 | <20% | |||||||||
[488] | CBP | Ordinary concrete | Cement (OPC), CBP (mainly, bricks and tiles), NA, recycled gravel. | NA | <63 μm | 25 | 25 | - | 0.990 | |
RAPC-100–15 | 100%RA + 15%RP | 0.49 | 0.16 | 35.18 | - | 0.840 | ||||
RAPC-100–30 | 100%RA + 30%RP | 0.49 | 0.17 | 28.36 | - | 0.690 | ||||
RAPC-100–45 | 100%RA + 30%RP | 0.49 | 0.16 | 22.79 | - | 0.550 | ||||
[470] | CC | Control mix | 0.45 | 6.20 | 51.2 | 407.00 | 1.000 | |||
C25 | 0%CDW + 25% MRA | 0.45 | 6.20 | 51.7 | 399.00 | 0.980 | ||||
C50 | 0%CDW + 50% MRA | 0.45 | 6.20 | 51.1 | 351.00 | 0.862 | ||||
R25/0 | 25%CDW | 0.45 | 6.20 | 46.1 | 335.00 | 0.823 | ||||
R25/25 | 25%CDW + 25% MRA | 0.45 | 6.20 | 45.7 | 327.00 | 0.803 | ||||
R25/R50 | 50%CDW + 50% MRA | 0.45 | 6.20 | 41.2 | 319.00 | 0.784 | ||||
[471] | RCP0 | Control mix | 0.55 | 3.00 | 51.60 | 333.00 | 1.000 | |||
RCP10 | 10%RCP | 0.55 | 3.00 | 41.30 | 304.00 | 0.913 | ||||
RCP20 | 20%RCP | 0.55 | 3.00 | 31.70 | 275.00 | 0.826 | ||||
RCP30 | 30%RCP | 0.55 | 3.00 | 22.80 | 246.00 | 0.739 | ||||
RCP40 | 40%RCP | 0.55 | 3.00 | 13.60 | 217.00 | 0.652 | ||||
RCP50 | 50%RCP | 0.55 | 3.00 | 10.00 | 188.00 | 0.565 | ||||
[448] d | Control | Control mix | 0.36 | 2.16% | 877.30 | 367.50 | 1.000 | |||
RP1 | 15%RP | 0.36 | 2.84% | 613.92 | 325.00 | 0.884 | ||||
RP2 | 30%RP | 0.36 | 3.52% | 786.23 | 278.00 | 0.756 | ||||
RP3 | 15%RP + 15%FA | 0.36 | 2.50% | 1298.73 | 275.60 | 0.750 | ||||
[487] | Ctrl-W37 | Control mix | 0.37 | 0.33 | 53.41 | 510.77 | 1.000 | |||
C5W37 | 5%CKD | 0.37 | 0.33 | 55.47 | 487.57 | 0.955 | ||||
C10W37 | 10%CKD | 0.37 | 0.33 | 52.13 | 464.36 | 0.909 | ||||
C15W37 | 15%CKD | 0.37 | 0.45 | 47.45 | 441.24 | 0.864 | ||||
C20W37 | 20%CKD | 0.37 | 0.54 | 41.42 | 418.10 | 0.819 | ||||
C30W37 | 30%CKD | 0.37 | 0.67 | 34.90 | 371.79 | 0.728 | ||||
C40W37 | 40%CKD | 0.37 | 1.63 | 28.09 | 326.07 | 0.638 | ||||
Ctrl-W40 | Control mix | 0.40 | 0.00 | 52.23 | 476.71 | 1.000 | ||||
C5W40 | 5%CKD | 0.40 | 0.00 | 49.52 | 457.94 | 0.961 | ||||
C10W40 | 10%CKD | 0.40 | 0.00 | 43.24 | 433.78 | 0.910 | ||||
C15W40 | 15%CKD | 0.40 | 0.00 | 37.97 | 412.32 | 0.865 | ||||
C20W40 | 20%CKD | 0.40 | 0.00 | 36.93 | 390.85 | 0.820 | Copper Slag (CS) | |||
C30W40 | 30%CKD | 0.40 | 0.33 | 34.94 | 348.16 | 0.730 | ||||
C40W40 | 40%CKD | 0.40 | 0.67 | 28.79 | 305.48 | 0.641 | ||||
Ctrl-W45 | Control mix | 0.45 | 0.00 | 50.14 | 430.36 | 1.000 | ||||
C5W45 | 5%CKD | 0.45 | 0.00 | 46.93 | 411.29 | 0.956 | ||||
C10W45 | 10%CKD | 0.45 | 0.00 | 44.76 | 392.20 | 0.911 | ||||
C15W45 | 15%CKD | 0.45 | 0.00 | 40.75 | 373.13 | 0.867 | ||||
C20W45 | 20%CKD | 0.45 | 0.00 | 37.53 | 354.05 | 0.823 | Ordinary concrete | 10 | ||
C30W45 | [ | 395 | ][414 | 30%CKD] | ||||||
0.40 | 0.00 | 34.79 | 315.89 | 0.734 | Foundry sand waste (FSW) | Ordinary concrete | <30 | |||
C40W45 | 40%CKD | 0.40 | [415][416] | |||||||
0.33 | 28.59 | 277.96 | 0.646 | Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) waste powder (WP) | Green concrete | 15–20 | ||||
C5F15W37 | 5%CKD + 15%FA | 0.37 | [294 | 0.33 | 55.93 | 419.60 | 0.822 | |||
C10F15W37 | 10%CKD + 15%FA | 0.37 | 0.33 | 48.64 | 396.52 | 0.776 | ||||
C5F15W40 | 5%CKD + 10%FA | 0.40 | 0.00 | 45.69 | 392.52 | 0.823 | ||||
C10F15W40 | 10%CKD + 15%FA | 0.40 | 0.00 | 46.44 | 371.28 | 0.779 | ||||
C5F15W45 | 5%CKD + 10%FA | 0.45 | 0.00 | 44.19 | 355.83 | 0.827 | Volcanic ash (VA) | Ordinary concrete | 10–15 | [418] |
C10F15W45 | 10%CKD + 15%FA | 0.45 | 0.00 | 40.03 | Crushed rock dust (CRD) | Ordinary concrete | 20 | [292] | ||
336.44 | 0.782 | Municipal solid waste incineration ash (MSWI) | Ordinary concrete | <12 | [295][419] |