2. MaaS Impacts
The anticipated MaaS benefits focus on the optimization of the existing public transport services within a city and the increase in travelers’ satisfaction
[11][16]. MaaS may also improve network efficiency by optimizing supply and demand, especially during peak hours when certain modes/routes are under-utilized, and reduce traffic congestion, transport costs for end-users, and car ownership
[11][16]. The implementation of MaaS may lead to emission reductions
[19][17] and offers seamless end-to-end mobility to its users
[20][18]. If Maas is structured and priced properly, it could provide benefits, including increased public transport ridership and active transport usage
[21][19], and offer intermodal solutions
[21][19] Soteropoulos et al. (2021)
[22][20] mentioned MaaS as being one of the potential solutions for addressing the challenges of future mobility. They suggested that automated vehicles and MaaS could potentially reduce the need for private car ownership and provide more efficient and sustainable transportation options. Existing research indicates that MaaS contributes to reduced dependence on private vehicles
[23][21], reduction of transport-related emissions
[24][22], enhancement of transport system reliability
[25][23], increased convenience and accessibility, reduced traffic congestion, and cost savings for users, increased flexibility for its users in the post-pandemic era
[26][24], and new opportunities for innovation and new business models for involved stakeholders
[27][25].
3. Planning and Implementation
The need to switch from single-mode planning to multimodality and build a resilient transport network has been also highlighted by the recent COVID-19 pandemic. The emphasis on resilience implies going beyond single-mode resilience to cross-modal, systemic resilience optimization
[28][26]. However, there is a high degree of ambiguity surrounding the MaaS concept, planning, and implementation
[29][27]. Following a critical literature review by Jittrapirom et al.
[29][27] the identified core characteristics when implementing a MaaS are the integration of transport modes, tariff options, the platform, coordination of multiple actors, use of technologies, demand orientation, registration requirements, personalization, and customization.
MaaS has been studied in the literature both theoretically
[14,30][11][28] and practically. At the practical level, MaaS has been tested either within the framework of research projects
[31,32,33][29][30][31] or has been implemented in several urban areas (e.g., Ubigo and Whim app).
Table 1 presents MaaS applications that have been tested or released in the market.
Table 1.
Overview of MaaS Applications.
[36]. Reasons for users not joining Ubigo included fare affordability (i.e., more expensive than the existing transport solution), a perceived mismatch between the user and the service, and lack of infrastructure (e.g., bike-sharing or car-sharing stations) to serve new users
[10][35].
The substantial barriers to implementing MaaS were also identified and grouped into categories for two European metropolitan areas, Budapest (Hungary) and Manchester (UK)
[11][16];
Table 3 presents the main ones.
Table 3. Main barriers to implementing MaaS [11]. Main barriers to implementing MaaS [16].
Barrier Category
|
Barriers
|
Greater Manchester (UK)
|
Budapest (HU)
|
|
| [ | 31 |
Greater Manchester (UK)
] |
2018
[29]
|
| Business, end-users, technology, and policy challenges (i.e., rapid growth of new mobility solutions such as dockless cycling, and UK de-regulated market; participants do not fully understand the MaaS concept and there is confusion with Smart Ticketing, etc.) |
|
Institutional/
Regulatory
|
Monopoly in the long term
|
Political opposition
|
BIP for MaaS
|
Public transport, bike sharing, traditional, free floating and electric car sharing, and carpooling
|
Torino, Italy (EU)
|
[32][30]
|
Luxembourg (LU)—Germany (DE)
|
Needs business reorganization
|
2018
|
Business, end-users, technology, and policy challenges (i.e., The collaboration of private companies with public organizations in MaaS, people’s strong reliance on their private cars, and the need for some regulatory modifications.)
|
Needs business reorganization
|
Bridj
|
On-demand commuter shuttle service
|
Boston, Kansas City, and Washington, DC (US)
|
[31][29]
|
Budapest (HU)
|
Unwillingness of cooperation among TSPs and the MaaS operator
|
2018
|
Τhe ticketing system of the public transport authority does not accept mobile-based ticketing solutions.
|
|
Communauto/Bixi
|
|
Unwillingness of cooperation among TSPs and the MaaS operator |
|
![Futuretransp 03 00029 i002](/media/item/202310/6538a58d2d21dfuturetransp-03-00029-i002.png)
[46Bike sharing and car sharing |
|
] [45]
|
Amsterdam (NL)
Quebec, Canada (US)
|
-
|
| [ | 31,33][29][31]
|
| 2019 |
|
The integration of a big number of mobility services in order to provide an attractive and ideally all-encompassing service.
|
|
EMMA
|
Public transport system, Bike sharing system, car and bike parking services, car sharing,
|
Montpellier, France (EU)
|
Athens & Korinthos (GR)
|
2019
|
| [33,34][31][32]
|
Monopoly in the long term |
|
Get me there
|
Bus, tram, metro, taxi, car-sharing, rail, coaches, electric vehicle charging infrastructure, and parking operators
|
Greater Manchester, North West England
|
[32][30]
|
Rome (IT)
|
2019
|
The provision of the most up-to-date traffic information and guidance to users regarding the best route to avoid unexpected events and congested roads.
|
Hannovermobil 2.0
|
Public transport, car sharing, and taxi
|
Hanover Region, Germany (EU)
|
[33,34,35][31][32][33]
|
Prague (CZ) |
Helsinki Model (Whim app)
|
Public transport, taxis, city bikes, car rental, car sharing, e-scooters, and shared bikes + on-demand transport
|
Helsinki and Turku, Finland (EU)
|
[9,31,33,34][9][29][31][32]
|
MaaS-London App
|
Car clubs (car sharing services), ride sharing, bike sharing, taxi and all types of public transport (London underground, overground, bus, tramlink, DLR, river bus, and national rail)
|
London (UK)
|
[34][32]
|
|
Social
|
Strong reliance of people on private cars
|
Strong reliance of people on private cars
|
Financial
|
Viability of business model
2019
|
-
|
Salzburg (AT)
|
2019
|
The integration of a big number of mobility services in order to provide an attractive and ideally all-encompassing service.
|
| Regulatory risks |
|
Macroeconomic risks
|
Viability of business model
|
Partnership risks
|
Partnership risks
|
![Futuretransp 03 00029 i003](/media/item/202310/6538a58d5ba11futuretransp-03-00029-i003.png)
[27][25]
|
Lisbon (PT)
|
2021
|
Ticketing, lack of an interoperability framework, and scalability to sustain a large deployment. |
Innovation risks
|
Non-credit rated activity
|
| Need to simplify/automate all the necessary steps to integrate new services and sub-systems in the IP4 ecosystem.
Public/private mobility integration, information handling and sharing, service interoperability, and scalability requirements
|
Mobility Shop
|
Public transport, bike sharing, car sharing, car rental, taxi, train
|
Operational/
|
| Helsinki, Finland (EU)
|
[4, |
Malaga (ES)
|
Technical
|
2021
|
Limited availability of APIs
|
Unwillingness to share data
36][4][34]
|
Moovel
|
Central east corridor (Berlin (DE) and Brno (CZ))
|
Public transport, car sharing, car rental, national rail, bike sharing, and taxis
|
Germany (EU), also testing in Boston, Portland, and Helsinki
|
|
2021
|
Unwillingness to share data
|
Standardization of data among TSPs and data providers
| [ | 4,31,33,34][4][29][31][32]
|
Qixxit
|
![Futuretransp 03 00029 i004](/media/item/202310/6538a58d86bb2futuretransp-03-00029-i004.png)
[47][46]
|
Standardization of data among TSPs and data providers
|
Car sharing, ride sharing, and bike sharing
|
Germany (EU)
|
|
Barcelona (ES)
[31][29]
|
|
Low ICT availability to support MaaS | 2023
|
In progress
|
SHIFT
|
Shuttle buses, bike sharing, car rental, car sharing, and valet service
|
Las Vegas (US)
|
Athens (GR)
|
2022
|
|
“Unbanked” travelers that may not be able to access MaaS services
|
-
|
2nd phase in progress
(Challenges are outlined in Section 4)
| [4,33,][4][31]34[32]
|
SMILE App
|
Public transport, rail, car sharing, bike sharing, car rental, taxi
|
Vienna, Austria (EU)
|
Warsaw (PL)
|
2023
|
|
In progress
[4,31,33,34][4][29][31][32]
|
TransitApp
|
|
Osijek (HR)
| Public transport, bike sharing, car sharing, taxi, ride-hailing
|
2023
USA, UK, Canada, Europe, Australia
|
[4]
|
|
Ubigo
|
Public transport, car sharing, car rentals, bike sharing, taxi service, car-pool, and bike-pool
|
Gothenburg and Västra Region, Sweden (EU)
|
[4,10,31,[32,33,437,38]][29][30][31][35][36][37]
|
URBI mobility
|
Regional and city trains, subway, trams, buses, free-floating and stationary vehicle-sharing, scooter-sharing, bike-sharing, taxis, and Uber
|
Berlin Brandenburg metropolitan and regional area, Germany (EU)
|
[32][30]
|
WienMobil Lab
|
Public transport, bike sharing, car sharing, taxi, parking garages
|
Vienna, Austria (EU)
|
[4]
|
MaaS utilize apps that offer a monthly subscription or a pay-as-you-go service for a single or a group of travelers to combine transport modes and use them with a single payment
[13][10]; different apps and platforms have been deployed to support local MaaS systems. MaaS Global released Whim, the first MaaS solution in the world
[39][38]. Currently, Whim operates in Helsinki and Turku (Finland), Antwerpen (Belgium), Vienna (Austria), West Midlands (UK), multiple cities in Switzerland, and Greater Tokyo (Japan). The Whim is an award-winning mobility app that facilitates mobility by offering two types of MaaS service: purchasing a season ticket (predefined mobility packages), and a single trip ticket (pay-as-you-go). The season ticket includes unlimited usage of public transport, taxi, city bikes, car rental, e-scooters, and shared bikes. In Los Angeles and Denver (US), a mobility platform was launched in 2016 to assist residents and tourists make travel choices more easily
[13][10]. The “Go Denver” and “Go LA” apps estimated different routes, including the greenest one, by considering individuals’ destinations and desired arrival time. The apps aggregated and calculated the time, cost, carbon footprint, and health benefits of walking, biking, driving, parking, public transit, and emerging ride-hailing options
[40][39]. The UbiGo app in Gothenburg, Sweden
[32,37,38][30][36][37] offers a monthly subscription for public transport, car sharing, car rentals, bike sharing, and taxi services
[10][35].
At the moment, there are at least three ongoing MaaS initiatives in the city of Madrid, yet there is no collaboration among them. The main challenge that they face is also confirmed by literature findings: the lack of a governance framework for MaaS
[41][40]. Given the different circumstances and conditions in different cities and regions, it seems unlikely that a single MaaS model would be universally applicable
[42][41].
Boero et al.
[32][30] described the MaaS concept and its implementation in the context of the IMOVE project. Furthermore, they described the organizational and technological enablers for MaaS and the main objectives and elements in the participating pilot sites. IMOVE was first implemented in four European areas (Living Labs) including Göteborg, the Västra Götaland region, the Berlin Brandenburg region, Greater Manchester, and Turin. The living labs combined several modes to deploy MaaS services, such as public transport, car-pool, bike-pool, taxi, U-Bahn (subway), tram, bus, free-floating and stationary vehicle-sharing, scooter-sharing, bike-sharing, and Uber.
4. Challenges and Barriers
Several stakeholders, including transportation planners, operators, and policy makers are interested in planning and implementing MaaS
[11][16]. However, potential societal, operational, financial, and regulatory barriers might hinder the MaaS success as concluded in the literature
[11][16]. For example, dependence on the MaaS to improve mobility and accessibility of individuals may create equity issues
[43][42], which should be considered within the transport policy and practice field. Furthermore, without a supportive built environment and high-quality public transport system, MaaS will likely not succeed to change travelers’ behavior
[28][26]. The degree these challenges are addressed affect the degree the potential benefits of MaaS are achieved
[44][43].
EU-funded projects have recently demonstrated MaaS solutions in several cities (
Table 2), yet the challenges that they faced during the implementation process are mainly technological integration of different Transport Service Provider (TSP) platforms and institutional issues.
Table 2 presents a summary of recently demonstrated pilots in EU projects and the main challenges they faced during testing.
Table 2.
A sample of recent EU MaaS pilots.
The MaaS4EU project concluded that major legal and regulatory barriers exist for the implementation of MaaS services
[45][44] that make participating in a MaaS scheme difficult for suppliers and public service providers. The project stresses that regulations and passenger rights can largely differ across different modes, due to the lack of a unimodal approach in the EU legislative framework. The MyCorridor project
[46][45] categorized barriers as well as enablers into five categories: User and market, Technology, Organization, Business, and Legal. However, legal issues for MaaS implementation were emphasized by further grouping them into: data protection, cybersecurity, intellectual agreements, consumer and payment laws, data interoperability, and local regulations. One of the latest MaaS demonstrations, within the framework of the Shift2Maas project
[27][25] highlighted challenges related to regulations, including data privacy (GDPR) as well as the local variation of regulations. Shift2MaaS proposed a roadmap, summarizing recommendations based on three pillars: regulation, business models, and technical issues. The IP4MaaS project extracts information and lessons learned from the MyCorridor and Shift2MaaS projects to build use cases and plan its demonstration.
Except for major challenges that interested stakeholders may face during MaaS implementation, barriers may also exist on the users’ side. Sochor et al.
[10][35] conducted a six-month field test in Gothenburg, Sweden to explore motivations and barriers to adopting new travel services. Potential users were initially motivated by curiosity, convenience, and fare savings. Results showed that is vital to generate interest and excitement in potential users regarding a new transportation scheme. Users provided positive feedback, but service providers faced regulatory and institutional barriers
[37]