Technological advancements have significantly influenced the education landscape, propelling traditional teaching methodologies into immersive and interactive learning experiences ^[1]. Transformative technologies like Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) are at the forefront, indicating a new epoch in the realm of education ^[2].

AR is the fusion of digital information with the physical environment, allowing users to interact with virtual elements effortlessly without concentrating on a device’s screen ^[3]. Consequently, AR distinguishes itself from alternative interaction paradigms by facilitating users to sustain an uninterrupted connection with their environment, thus keeping their attention fixed on the real world. The absence of contextual isolation leads to the creation of an augmented real world. AR capitalizes on a user’s visual and spatial abilities. AR increases the real world by layering extra information rather than engrossing the user into an isolated virtual world confined to the computer [4,5]^[4][5]. In an educational context, Virtual Reality (VR) refers to the use of immersive digital environments and simulations to enhance teaching and learning experiences. It allows students to engage with educational content in a more interactive and experiential way, often going beyond traditional methods of instruction. Unlike AR, VR exists in an entirely artificial environment, where participants are either immersive or non-immersive members of the simulated world. In VR, users can interact with and manipulate computer-generated objects through haptic interfaces while fully engaged in the virtual environment ^[6].

In the education context, Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) diverge in their approaches to enhancing learning experiences. VR engulfs students in a fully immersive digital world, facilitated by headsets that transport them entirely into computer-generated environments. With VR, students can explore simulated realms, interact with objects, and navigate through intricate scenarios. This technology is often harnessed for immersive simulations, historical recreations, and intricate scientific explorations, providing an unmatched level of engagement and enabling students to vividly comprehend complex concepts.

Conversely, Augmented Reality (AR) seamlessly overlays digital elements onto the real world, allowing students to simultaneously perceive both their physical surroundings and digitally added components through devices like screens or mobile devices. AR amplifies real-world experiences by supplementing them with contextual information. Students can interact with physical objects enriched with digital annotations or access 3D models that pop up within their actual environment. AR serves as an informative layer that enhances tangible experiences, making it particularly useful for guided tours, interactive visualizations, and real-time data integration. Unlike VR, AR maintains a bridge to the real world, fostering a blend of physical and digital interactions that offer a unique way to augment education.

The application of AR and VR in educational settings has the potential to revolutionize how knowledge is acquired and applied, providing students with unparalleled opportunities to engage with content, explore complex concepts, and interact with virtual environments. Consequently, this has culminated in the emergence of the metaverse in the education landscape. The gradual transformation of the metaverse concept from mere science fiction to a tangible reality has revolutionized the perception and interaction with the digital world. The idea of the Metaverse, a shared virtual space that blends augmented reality, virtual reality, and the internet, was introduced by Neal Stephenson in his 1992 novel Snow Crash ^[7]. In recent years, technological advancements have propelled the metaverse concept from speculative fiction to a concrete possibility with substantial implications for various industries, including education. Researchers have extensively discussed the metaverse concept and have presented diverse viewpoints on its definition ^[8]. Lee et al. ^[9] depict the metaverse as a blend of virtually enhanced physical reality and physically persisted virtual space. Ning et al. ^[10] consider it a modern category of internet applications and social structure that merges several advanced technologies. In education, the metaverse is perceived as a new space where people can socially interact, requiring proactive measures from higher educational institutions to assimilate it into the teaching and instructional experiences ^[11]. Likewise, Schlemmer and Backles ^[12] highlight that the metaverse provides immersive possibilities of 3D digital virtual worlds, which rely on avatars for communication and interaction to generate a sense of presence.

Nevertheless, because of technological progress and its increasing impact, researchers contend that the metaverse has developed beyond its prior definition, necessitating a new outlook. Among new definitions, a recent study emphasizes the classification of the metaverse into four distinct scenarios, comprising augmented reality, lifelogging, presence of virtual worlds, and mirror worlds as integral components of the metaverse setup ^[13]. Park and Kim ^[14] argue that integrating mobile technology and deep learning has enabled ubiquitous access to the metaverse, resulting in a more immersive environment than its predecessors. In light of these dynamic shifts, researchers claim that one of the most consequential applications of the metaverse is in the field of education. This conviction originates from the concept that the metaverse can function as a pioneering education setting, blending metaverse-related technologies with elements from both the virtual and real education spheres [15,16]^[15][16]. The advent of new technologies, such as wearable devices, allows learners to effortlessly access this educational environment anytime, anywhere, and participate in live interactions, using digital personas with various entities such as avatars, chatbots, and virtual learning tools. This learning environment provides learners with a profound sense of presence while being physically present in the real-world educational context. From this perspective, integrating the metaverse in education promises to unlock many extraordinary learning experiences for students ^[17].

Integrating AR and VR in education underscores immersive technologies’ transformative potential for learning environments [90,91]^[18][19]. The literature on AR and VR applications in education spans a broad spectrum, encompassing various educational contexts. In the K-12 educational context, AR technologies have garnered more attention, and implementations are higher than VR technologies [92]^[20]. Conversely, literature on VR applications in higher education often lacks explicit reference to foundational learning theories. Experimental studies have predominantly focused on measuring learner attitudes, engagement levels, and usability [93]^[21]. Additionally, AR and VR application development assessment has primarily revolved around gauging learners’ perception of specific application features. As a result, there is shortage of empirical research regarding the comparative analysis of the educational outcomes stemming from the implementation of AR and VR technologies [72]^[22]. The current landscape of teaching and learning is undergoing dynamic transformations, propelled by the rapid development and widespread adoption of information technology. As a result, pedagogical practices are continuously evolving, with a notable trend being the exploration of immersive virtual technologies. Yet, amidst this surge, ascertaining the precise impacts of Virtual Reality (VR) remains an intricate challenge [94]^[23]. Nevertheless, a dearth of comprehensive insights into application design elements and architecture and the absence of underlying theories remain noticeable. This can be primarily attributed to the cost of developing such technologies, leading to some studies adopting existing solutions like AR mobile applications or VR head-mounted devices [95]^[24]. In STEM education, the bulk of exploration resides within K-12 educational settings, where studies have spanned across science, technology, language, art, and music domains [70]^[25]. While the adoption and application of AR/VR in STEM education show promising potential, several challenges and considerations highlighted in various studies underscore the need for further development, refinement, and a more comprehensive approach to addressing user needs such as personalized learning materials, cost of hardware and software, usability, interaction and kinesthetic learning, and educational theories [96]^[26]. Similarly, the studies on professional development programs using AR/VR exhibited limitations in their scope. Insufficient attention was directed toward intervention attributes, evaluation metrics and learning outcomes [97]^[27]. Within K-12 education, a predominant focus was directed toward customized curricula for educators to cater to student requirements, assessment methods to address transfer of performance skills, and elevated cognitive processes. Additionally, inadequate provisions were observed for educators and administrators at the district and state tiers to cultivate knowledge foundation and attitudes that is essential to improve the quality of teaching [98]^[28]. Similarly, health considerations pertaining to children using AR/VR technologies were observed from the feedback of parents and educators [65]^[29]. The integration of practical and versatile development software, including prominent platforms, such as Unity, Blender, and Houdini SideFX, plays an indispensable and multifaceted role in the domain of animation. These software applications transcend their conventional usage as tools solely for interactive engagement, assuming a foundational and transformative role in the comprehensive process of animation creation. Unity, distinguished for its adaptability beyond gaming contexts, emerges as a dynamic platform enabling creators to orchestrate immersive visual narratives. Its capabilities extend to real-time rendering, fostering interactive environments that imbue animations with experiential depth. On a parallel note, Blender, a comprehensive open-source 3D creation suite, spans the gamut of animation production. Its diverse toolset facilitates not only modeling and texturing but also intricate animation processes, rendering, and simulation, engendering a comprehensive ecosystem for seamless visual development. Furthermore, the inclusion of Houdini SideFX amplifies the array of software choices, offering an advanced framework for procedural animation and intricate visual effects. This software’s procedural paradigm empowers animators to meticulously craft intricate visual sequences that bear a profound semblance to real-world dynamics. Collectively, these software platforms transcend their conventional utility, evolving into fundamental instruments that enable the transformation of creative concepts into captivating, multisensory animations. Their integration ushers in a new era of dynamic interactivity, effectively bridging the gap between static visual content and immersive animated experiences. There is a more advanced landscape in medical education, with applications utilized for surgical and anatomy education, yielding positive outcomes. Nevertheless, a substantial number of these studies remain within experimental phase or are limited to prototype designs primarily intended for training. Consequently, the genuine influence of immersive technologies in medical education is frequently left unexplored [99]^[30]. Furthermore, a study has brought to light that students participating in e-learning platforms that incorporate a range of technological integrations for medical education, especially in distance learning settings, have conveyed discomfort with the platform and demonstrated reluctance in accepting its integration. Moreover, students have faced difficulties related to understanding medical instruction and learning materials. Consequently, the study suggests that students need to be effectively acquainted with this new teaching environment before adopting new technologies for medical education [100]^[31]. Delving into VR applications across various educational settings, two significant areas come to the forefront: user interaction within the immersive environment and interactions with the hardware. Within these domains, notable concerns emerge, as learners have reported issues related to communication, object manipulation, and interruptions within the virtual environment. Technical glitches, such as bugs and crashes, have also hindered a seamless learning experience [92,101]^[20][32]. Moreover, critical aspects like potential side effects on users and image resolution, including the need for blur-free images and zoom-in and out features, demand more substantial consideration to enhance user comfort. In educational settings, the principles of reusability and scalability are essential for ensuring the long-term sustainability of technological implementations [102]^[33]. Focusing on these critical factors is increasingly important as we integrate innovative tools like Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR). Reusability means designing educational content and applications in a way that allows them to be adapted and reused in different contexts, courses, and learning objectives [103]^[34]. This optimizes resources and ensures consistency in delivering compelling learning experiences. Scalability is equally essential and involves developing solutions that can accommodate a growing number of users without compromising quality or functionality. Scalable AR and VR applications can meet the evolving needs of education, expanding student populations, and dynamic curriculum changes. By paying more attention to reusability and scalability, educators and technologists can ensure that the benefits of AR and VR are not limited to isolated cases but are woven into the fabric of education, promoting lasting innovation and improved learning outcomes. While few studies have reported a lower cognitive load, there is no in-depth information on cognitive load theory. Research outcomes have yielded a blend of results, with some investigations offering overreaching assertions regarding reduced cognitive load. One particular study has underscored the hurdle linked to AR applications, particularly concerning lower-order cognitive aptitudes, potentially impeding cognitive advancement through AR-based learning [104]^[35]. In a distinct examination, it has been emphasized that the recurrent utilization of immersive environments might lead to cognitive overload owing to the substantial time and attention required to grasp the educational content [105,106]^[36][37]. In general, cognitive load can differ based on the inherent complexity of a task or concept. In contrast, other load forms involve cognitive demands imposed by a presentation of content and often stemming from suboptimal instructional materials [107]^[38]. Similarly, limited information has been presented considering the participants’ ability for long-term retention. Therefore, the simplistic assumption of lower cognitive load based on an enjoyable and unique immersive experience is insufficient. Past literature has indicated that immersive VR burdens working memory, leading to cyber sickness [108,109]^[39][40]. Additionally, design deficiencies may also have a substantial impact on the surge of cognitive load. Likewise, cybersickness is a widely discussed limitation of VR environments [110]^[41]. However, this issue has been probed through several hypotheses with no potential remedies for this concern. Spatial understanding is another context that has limited focus. In this context, it is crucial to understand the participants’ spatial associations with objects in the environment, as varying levels of spatial ability can determine the participants’ performances in the virtual environment. Furthermore, divergent information exists regarding the optimal duration of these studies. While most studies have centered around shorter durations, emerging evidence suggests that a learner’s impact is more comprehensively discerned through extended sessions. Simultaneously, it has been reported that shorter sessions with breaks can effectively mitigate fatigue and the potential onset of motion sickness [111]^[42]. These findings underscore the imperative for further comprehensive assessments before integrating technology into education. The advent of AR and VR promises to transform the education landscape, ushering in immersive and captivating learning platforms and experiences for students. The implications of these technologies are multifaceted and can be expounded upon as follows:

• A tangible curriculum with practical instructional strategies for educators is critical as it can heighten interest in students by delivering the subject matter in a way that creates sustained student engagement.
• Integrating AR/VR developmental training for educators is imperative, accompanied by thorough research that underscores teachers’ learning experiences and compares them with students’ learning experiences in the same environment. Doing so can effectively identify and address any disparities or challenges, ensuring a well-rounded and optimized learning environment for educators and students.
• Captivating visuals and interactive platforms with auditory cues must be incorporated to foster long-term interest and prevent confusion on how to engage within the virtual environment and its objects.
• Educational content must be designed to suit diverse environments, educators, and students with a user-friendly interface to enable a comprehensive grasp of the materials being taught.
• Equitable access to AR and VR is critical for ensuring that all learners can benefit from the innovative tools. As these tools are considered for educational settings, addressing potential disparities in access is essential. Equitable access ensures that students with diverse backgrounds, including those with disabilities and varying economic circumstances, have an equal opportunity to engage with AR/VR experiences. Achieving this goal can involve various strategies, such as making AR/VR experiences accessible in public institutions, schools, and libraries and ensuring the availability of suitable assistive technologies for students with disabilities under the required guidance of specialists.
• Collaboration among educational institutions, technology providers, and other community organizations is pivotal in extending AR/VR resources to marginalized communities.
• Educators and policymakers can collaborate to leverage the capabilities of AR/VR for every learner.
• Cost-effective hardware and software are critical in adopting these technologies in an educational setting.
• The results have indicated that these technologies favored the confidence and retention of low-achieving students over high achievers. Therefore, AR/VR must be tailored for students, as they have varying levels of comprehension.

3. Conclusions

AR and VR technologies are poised to reshape the educational landscape, offering students more engaging, dynamic, and immersive experiences. While the potential benefits of AR and VR are evident across various educational levels, key aspects warrant attention as these technologies become more integrated into learning environments. Despite significant strides taken sto explore the benefits of AR and VR, challenges remain, such as cognitive load, cybersickness, cost, equitable access, curriculum challenges, and instructional strategies. The literature lacks a strong foundation in learning theories, with many studies focusing on usability without establishing a robust theoretical framework. Bridging this gap by infusing pedagogical theories can enhance the effectiveness of these applications in addressing specific learning objectives. As the field evolves, it is crucial to foster dialogue, share best practices, and develop guidelines that prioritize an inclusive learning environment with features specifically designed to address the educational needs of different students. AR and VR technologies continue to evolve, and educators, researchers, and policymakers have an exciting opportunity to shape the future of education by addressing various gaps, challenges, and limitations, such as theoretical foundations, application design, impact on learning, side effects, and the full potential of AR/VR technologies to create transformative learning experiences that prepare students for the challenges and opportunities of the modern world.