Student-athletes constitute a unique subgroup of the student population, juggling the demands of academic pursuits with rigorous athletic training and competition. They face distinct challenges, as balancing academic responsibilities, rigorous training, and competition schedules is no easy feat. Numerous studies have highlighted the importance of studying education for student-athletes as a separate and distinct topic ^[1][2][1,2].

In current studies, there is a growing focus on academic achievement among student-athletes ^[3][4][5][3,4,5], as it may directly impact their athletic performance and future career prospects. Research has shown that student-athletes who excel academically are more likely to perform well on the field, court, or track [6]. Moreover, academic success can help student-athletes gain admission to prestigious colleges or universities, opening up more opportunities for future success in their athletic careers [7]. Additionally, academic achievement can improve the overall well-being of student-athletes, as it is linked to higher levels of athletic self-esteem, confidence, and mental health [8]. In summary, academic success is crucial for the overall success and well-being of student-athletes and should be prioritized alongside athletic achievement.

However, it is crucial to acknowledge that academic motivation and identity among student-athletes vary, notably influenced by their competitive level and age. For instance, an insightful study by Lupo et al. [9] sheds light on the intricate relationship between student-athletes’ identities and these variables. The study reveals that younger and elite student-athletes tend to exhibit stronger academic identities compared to their older peers, while those competing at elite levels display more robust identity values than their sub-elite counterparts. Furthermore, differences in motivation for sports and career goals also surface within the domain of student-athletes, with elite athletes demonstrating higher motivation levels than their sub-elite counterparts [10]. This underscores the multifaceted nature of student-athletes’ learning requirements.

2. Academic Performance among Student-Athletes

Previous studies suggest that student-athletes may encounter challenges in their academic performance and motivation. For instance, Van Rens et al. [11] investigated student-athletes in the Netherlands and found that those attending Topsport Talent Schools were less motivated in their regular academic studies, resulting in lower academic achievements in both secondary and further education. Similarly, Strum et al. [12] conducted a study to see the differences between being a student-athlete in Division I and Division III. The results showed that if someone strongly sees themselves as an athlete, they might not see themselves as much as a student, and vice versa. Pot et al. [13] also observed that participation in a sports program led to an increase in athletic identity and a decrease in academic identity in 10 to 12 year olds, with boys experiencing a decline in student identity. Earlier studies have also suggested a negative impact of being an athlete on academics ^[14][15][14,15]. These findings contribute to the prevalent belief that athletes are academically inferior to their non-athlete counterparts, which is often portrayed in a negative light ^{[16][17][18][19][20]}[16,17,18,19,20]. Such stereotypes and biases held by peers, coaches, and faculty members perpetuate this viewpoint, leading to anxiety and self-fulfilling prophecies among student-athletes ^[21][22][21,22]. However, it is crucial to recognize that this stereotype is inaccurate and unfair to student-athletes. Some research has shown that student-athletes can perform as well or even better academically than their non-athlete peers. For instance, Routon and Walker [23] found only a small, negative, and insignificant effect on GPA between student-athletes and non-athletes in America. Grimit [6] found that athletic participation can lead to better academic performance, improved time management skills, increased motivation to complete degree requirements, enhanced class attendance and engagement, and a smoother college lifestyle transition for student-athletes. Moreover, participation in sports programs has demonstrated positive impacts on academic performance [24]. These studies underscore the potential of student-athletes to excel academically and emphasize the importance of supporting them to further enhance their academic success. It is essential to challenge negative stereotypes and biases against student-athletes and recognize their academic potential and achievements. Motivation plays a significant role in student-athletes’ engagement with academic activities [25]. Since they fulfill dual roles as student-athletes, it is important to consider their motivation for school and sports. Research indicates that strong academic motivation is linked to higher academic achievement among student-athletes ^[18][25][18,25]. Conversely, when student-athletes are more motivated by athletics, their academic grades may suffer compared to those motivated by academics [26]. The athletic identity of student-athletes can sometimes overshadow their academic identity, leading to reduced interest in their academic work. To improve their academic performance, it is vital to identify strategies that make learning more engaging and motivating for student-athletes.

3. Intelligent Tutoring Systems

Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) are computer tools that use detailed methods to understand how learners think and feel. They provide personalized tutoring steps for students. These systems have been made for many subjects like mathematics, medicine, law, and reading to help learners gain specific skills and learn how to think about their own learning [27]. ITS has gained widespread recognition in education because it offers personalized learning experiences that accommodate individual needs and learning steps. Compared to other online learning methods like video courses, one of the main benefits of ITS is its ability to cater to the diverse needs of students with varying levels of knowledge, abilities, and learning preferences. For example, ITS can provide remedial support to struggling students and challenge more advanced learners with more complex material [28]. Additionally, ITS can accommodate different learning styles, such as visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic, by adapting their instruction accordingly [29]. Furthermore, ITS can provide immediate feedback and adaptive scaffolding to assist students in mastering challenging concepts and skills and promote deeper learning [30]. These features make ITS beneficial for different students, including those with disabilities, non-native language speakers, and gifted learners, among others [31]. ITS has been shown to improve student learning outcomes, motivation, and engagement across various educational contexts and disciplines ^[31][32][31,32]. Integrating ITS into education can be a promising strategy to enhance the quality and equity of learning for different students. However, there is still a significant gap in the use of ITS among student-athletes. Because student-athletes have unique academic demands, they require personalized support and equal opportunities to succeed academically.

4. SDT in Student-Athletes and SDT-Based Design in Education

Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a scholarly foundation for examining motivation. This theory has considerable implications for classroom methodologies and broader educational policy changes ^[33][34][33,34]. The theory proposes that there are three essential psychological needs inherent in every individual: autonomy, relatedness, and competence. These needs underpin self-directed actions and involvement. SDT has been widely used to explore the factors influencing academic motivation in the studies of student-athletes. For instance, researchers assessed the academic motivation of 1042 Canadian college students using SDT to determine the extent to which different types of motivation influenced students’ persistence or withdrawal from school [35]. The findings showed that students who dropped out had notably reduced levels of identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation in comparison to students who continued their education. Yukhymenko-Lescroart [36] linked the two-fold model of passion with the self-determination theory to study the motivational factors influencing how student-athletes see their efforts in both athletic and academic areas. The results showed that effort in sports was driven by interest in the sport, whereas effort in academics was influenced by how students identified with their academic role and how much they valued their courses. These studies have shown that the SDT can serve as a useful framework for investigating academic motivation in student-athletes. They have also highlighted a significant connection between autonomy, competence, relatedness, and the academic engagement of student-athletes. However, with many studies demonstrating that SDT could explain the academic change in student-athletes, there have been few studies focused on how to support their autonomy, competence, and relatedness in their learning environment. Current SDT-based learning support for common students can be primarily categorized into two aspects: teacher support and digital support [37]. Autonomy-supportive teachers nurture students’ needs, interests, and preferences, allowing them to make choices in their learning and avoiding strict deadlines or constraints ^[38][39][40][38,39,40]. Relatedness-supportive teachers focus on emotional and motivational support, creating warm and caring learning environments where students feel connected and comfortable expressing their learning needs ^[41][42][41,42]. Competence-supportive teachers communicate clear expectations, provide guidance and feedback, and offer well-designed learning materials [43].