Food and nutrition insecurity as outcomes of existing food systems have often been described as a ‘wicked problem’ due to the complex nature of the food security phenomenon. Food insecurity has been attributed to the steadily rising global population, conflict and climate, among other factors, and poses a major risk to human lives and well-being, especially in the Global South ^[1][2][1,2]. Further, the Global Report on Food Crises [3] has reported a worsening acute food insecurity situation and a substantial (22 percent) expansion of the global population between the years 2020 and 2021. In Africa, about 250 million people are undernourished, with reports indicating that Sub-Saharan Africa will continue to face severe hunger challenges [4]. Notably, the growth of food production is slow compared to the increasing population. For instance, in Sub-Saharan Africa, the population growth rate per year is at 3 percent, which means that it could lead to doubling of the current generation. Therefore, the promotion and implementation of agricultural and food technologies is recognized as integral to achieving the SDGs (SDG 9), including the urgent need for “increased investment in infrastructure and technology for sustainable agriculture” in order to meet SDG 2, which aims to end hunger and achieve food security through sustainable agriculture [5]. It is thus essential to ensure that agricultural production is effective, efficient and sustainable [6]. Potential solutions to some of these risks are offered by emerging technologies and innovations ^[7][8][7,8]. A number of measures have been put forward to combat the problem of food security globally. Biotechnological innovations such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and the use of antibiotics have been shown to be successful in addressing food production challenges [9].

In Kenya, Food and nutrition insecurity is still a major challenge, and since 2008 and between 2014 and 2019, severe droughts were experienced, resulting in more than double the number of food-insecure people from 1.3 million to 2.7 million [10]. According to an update of the Kenya Food Security Steering Group’s (KFSSG) 2021/2022 Short Rains IPC study, the number of food-insecure persons in pastoral and marginal agricultural regions increased from 3.1 million in February 2022 to over 4.1 million in May 2022 according to the recent Kenya Food Security Outlook, 2022 [11]. Climate variability and extremes, among other factors like the recent COVID-19 pandemic, continue to harm agricultural productivity across the country, creating vulnerability concerns for many people, the majority of whom are women who rely on agriculture for a living [12]. Therefore, to move Kenya closer to sustainable food security, deliberate initiatives based on solid research and anchored in the uniqueness of the agricultural systems and culture must be addressed. Globally, scientists have been searching for novel ways to boost agricultural productivity and ensure sustainable food security [13]. Subsequently, farmers have adopted different strategies, including improved seed varieties, mechanization, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, information technology as well as modern biotechnology, to mention but a few. Similarly, genetically modified (GM) crops have been proposed as a potential strategy to promote sustainable food production [14]. Since the mid-1990s, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and genetic engineering (GE) technology have been available. However, their adoption has been fraught with controversy, with anti-GMO activists raising concerns about the health and environmental risks. On the other hand, the proponents of GMOs argue that they reduce the use of pesticides and increase crop yields. The technique has been slowly embraced in various regions of the world, with acreage under GM crops rising. In 2019, GM crops were grown in economically significant amounts in United States over 71.5 million hectares, followed by Brazil (52.8 million hectares), Argentina (24 million hectares), Canada (12.5 million hectares) and India (11.9 million hectares) [15]. In addition, soybean was the most adopted crop (50%), followed by maize (30%), cotton (13%) and canola (5%) [15]. In South Africa, the commercialization of GM maize began in 1998, with the release of Bt maize (Monsanto 810) and pest-resistant Bt11 in 2003 [16]. In 2019, it was among the top 10 countries that planted GM crops, with an area of 2.68 million hectares. It has been 22 years since the commercialization of genetically modified crops [17]. The adoption of GM maize cultivars was more significant among commercial farmers than small-scale farmers. In 2009, the adoption rate among commercial farmers was 26% Bt, 15% Ht and 20% Stacked Bt/Ht yellow types, while for white varieties, the adoption rate was 60% Bt, 5% Ht and 8% stacked Bt/Ht ^[16][18][16,18]. Despite these global trends, the adoption of genetically modified (GM) crops in Africa, including Kenya, has been slow due to the EU’s contradictory messages on the health and safety of genetically modified foods, negative views, a lack of information and hostility towards biotechnology, among others [16].

In regard to this biotechnology, many crops have been genetically modified to increase resistance to diseases, herbicides and insect pests, among other beneficial characteristics [18]. Genetic modification is a special set of gene technology that alters the genetic machinery of such living organisms as animals, plants or microorganisms. GMOs are organisms (including plants, animals or microorganisms) in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally through mating and/or natural recombination. The technology is often called “modern biotechnology” or “gene technology”, or sometimes “recombinant DNA technology” or “genetic engineering”, and allows selected individual genes to be transferred from one organism into another, and also between nonrelated species [17]. These modern biotechnologies have contributed to more sustainable agriculture, higher yields, a reduction in pesticide use and the provision of more nutritious food [16]. Some of the crops that have been genetically engineered include maize, cotton, soya bean and canola. For instance, GM insect-resistant maize has been shown to be resistant to infestation by molds and also contains great health benefits [19]. Widespread experiments conducted in about 21 different fields in a homogenous environment showed lower levels of mycotoxin in Bt maize as compared with the non-Bt isoline [20]. Moreover, other benefits include a reduction in the use of pesticides. In 2003, studies conducted in the USA showed a reduction in pesticide use due to the cultivation of GM crops. In 2001, China also recorded a reduction in the number of formulated pesticides that were being used by 78,000 tonnes [21]. Therefore, a reduction in pesticide use reduces the risk of exposure and poisoning to farmers and the environment, as well [22].

Despite the prospects and benefits of GMO technology, most of the African countries have been reluctant to adopt genetically modified (GM) crops due to a number of factors, including limited knowledge and awareness on the application of the technologies; a lack of regulatory policies; a lack of assured safety; and long-term effects [23]. Only 12 countries out of the 54 have national biosafety frameworks that are operational. Further to this, only five of the countries allow the planting of GM crops [24]. Policies are important in protecting the environment, human health as well as research and development. The national biosafety authority in Kenya was developed to enhance the uptake of GMO technology. A number of controversies over the benefits and harms GMO technology, widely propelled by many challenges, such as a lack of sufficient information and data, misconceptions, regulations, ignorance and philosophical concerns, rather than ethics, among others, led the Ministry of Health to place a ban in 2012 on the development and cultivation of GM crops [25]. The ban lasted for seven years and with government direction, the cultivation of GM crops, in particular, Bt cotton, started in 2020 [26]. In this context, foods produced from or using GMO technology of genetically modified organisms are often referred to as GM foods. However, in 2022 the Government lifted the ban on GMOs, allowing for the cultivation of GM crops to address food insecurity. Despite evidence in many projects from different research institutions geared towards improving indigenous crops, the lack of required expertise and funds limit their implementation by farmers [27]. Currently, at least six GMO projects have been approved for research by the National Council of Science and Technology, the National Biosafety Authority, the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate and National Environmental Management. They are under confined field trials for early testing in confined greenhouses and field trials with controlled access, while others are in various stages of application. The main stages of biotechnology include: research and development, contained research, confined field testing and commercial production. Some of the GM crops that have been approved for contained experiments and confined field trials include insect-resistant maize and cotton, virus-resistant cassava, virus-resistant sweet potato and rinderpest vaccine. While GM crops can be more resilient to climate change and/or provide greater output, anecdotal evidence points to some negative socioeconomic consequences, such as the high cost of seeds, especially for smallholder farmers, and undermining biodiversity. The effects of GMO technology and GM crops in Kenya are yet to be seen.

Sustainable food production is becoming critical to ensuring food and nutrition security for all. Some of the solutions that can boost sustainable production, particularly in agriculture and livestock, include the use of antimicrobials [28]. Globally, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has been recognized as one of the emerging threats to public health [29]. AMR poses huge risks for agriculture, with the livestock sector as the primary user of antimicrobials. The impact of AMR can lead to economic losses, a decline in livestock production, poverty, hunger and malnutrition ^[30][31][32][30,31,32]. Given this reality, the world health organization has urged its member countries to develop national action plans to tackle the problem of AMR, as endorsed by the World Health Assembly in resolution WHA 67.25 [33]. Following the WHO recommendations, the UN FAO action plan also focuses on monitoring and promoting best practices to optimize antimicrobial use along the food chain [34]. In addition, in response to the AMR threat, investments such as the UK Fleming Fund have been established to improve AMR surveillance through the One Health approach and provide evidence for the development of appropriate policies and interventions. Kenya is one of the countries that agreed to initiate a national action plan for AMR that is consistent with the Global Action Plan, and to implement relevant policies and plans to prevent, control and monitor AMR. AMR is recognized as a silent pandemic that threatens to kill up to 10 million people by 2050.

Currently, up to 700,000 people die annually due to AMR, with 90 percent of these deaths being reported in Africa, Asia and South America. Around 75 percent of all antimicrobials are used in animal agriculture. In developing countries, the use of antimicrobials is often unregulated [35]. While there have been demonstrated links between AMR in animals and humans, little is known about the role of the environment. Further, the rate of antimicrobial resistance-related infections is high and is projected to increase in developed countries. The prominent and direct effects of antimicrobials include increased mortality, high morbidity and economic losses [36]. A loss in GDP is also projected in developing countries due to antimicrobial resistance by the year 2050, which will further decline as a result of economic slowdown in the post-COVID scenario [37]. Therefore, it is crucial to address antimicrobial resistance to achieve sustainable development goals associated with poverty and hunger alleviation and the improvement of health and economic growth [38]. In Africa, a large proportion (50%) of antibiotics is used in animal farming to treat diseases or promote animal health. However, in many African countries, there are no clear guidelines controlling the contamination of feedstuffs. Additionally, available information in regard to antibiotic residues in animal-derived foods is still lacking. The greatest significant sources of AMR have been reported to be fertilizers of fecal origin, irrigation and water in plant-based food and/or aquaculture, while feeds, humans, water, air or dust, soil, wildlife, rodents, arthropods and equipment are the major potential sources in animal production. Concerted global efforts to minimize the risks of AMR and scientific knowledge and/or science-based evidence are required to detect and manage AMR risks before they become large-scale emergencies ^[28][39][28,39]. These require the strengthening of surveillance of AMR hotspots, the training of stakeholders, the support of research and innovation, and incentivizing stakeholders to transform the awareness of AMR risks into action according to the FAO Action Plan on AMR 2021–2025.

Currently, Kenya is one of the global hotspots of two main food innovations, including GMO technology and antibiotic resistance in livestock, and is therefore facing a number of factors that impact the food security of its population. These two new national initiatives geared towards addressing food insecurity have been observed to be undergoing an increasing trend, as evidenced by the lifting of the ban on using GM crops and the One Health policy plan to regulate the use of antibiotics. This makes this researchtudy and its foci extremely timely, and the findings could facilitate policy impact. Nevertheless, research on technological risk governance in most African countries remains nascent, with limited information on (i) how to conceptualize such double-edged development technologies and (ii) how technological risk governance can be sensitive to and inclusive of African values and knowledge. Subsequently, interventions are frequently dependent on technocratic knowledge, with little clarity on how to incorporate cultural and value-based concerns into the development and implementation of technologies for development.