Semiconductor-based photocatalytic reactions are a practical class of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) to address energy scarcity and environmental pollution. By utilizing solar energy as a clean, abundant, and renewable source, this process offers numerous advantages, including high efficiency, eco-friendliness, and low cost.
Entry | Photocatalyst | Synthesis Method | Preparation Condition | Photocatalytic Test Condition | Photocurrent Density, Efficiency | Ref. | ||||
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1 | Sb-SnS | hydrothermal | (CN)6]6180 ◦C for 16 h. | Simulated solar, AM 1.5 G, 100 mW cm−2, 0.5 M Na2SO4 |
3.3 mA cm−2 | [ | mixed, stirred and centrifuged | precursors: Th(NO3)4, formic acid, |
300 W Xe lamp, 420 or 800 nm filter198 |
CO production rate: 570.3 µmol g−1h−1][45] |
[ | 215 | ] | [ | 63 | ] | 2 | BiVO4, Bi2O3, TiO2 | spin-coating and calcination |
sol-gel-based spin coating method | Na2SO4 solution without hole scavengers |
Entry | Photocatalyst | Synthesis Method | Preparation Condition | Pollutant Type | Light Condition | Efficiency (%) | Time (min) | Ref. | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | CN/CQD/BiOCl0.75Br0.25 | hydrothermal | pH = 5.8 [TC] = 100 mg·L−1 Catalyst dose = 0.1 g·L−1 |
Tetracycline (TC) | 500 W Xe lamp (λ > 400 nm) | 83.4 | 30 | [232][80] | |||||||
2 | Porphyrin-based MOFs | solvothermal | |||||||||||||
2 | α-Fe2O3@TiO2 | sonication and wet impregnation | precursor: TPP and MnCl2 |
pH = 4.76 [CFX] = 20.5 mg·L−1 | 5.1, 3.4, and 2.1 mA cm−2 | Catalyst dose = 0.012 g·L−1300 W Xe lamp, 1 sun (AM1.5 G) |
Cefixime (CFX)[199] |
CO production rate: 46.148 µmol g−1[46] |
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h | −1 | [ | 214 | ] | 500 W halogen visible light (>400 nm) | [62] | 98.8 | 103 | [233][81 | 3 | CN/Mn2O3 | plasma-assisted liquid-based |
melamine and C3H3N3O3 |
0.1 M Na2SO4, pH = 6.5 | 25 μA cm−2 |
] | 3 | boron-doped g-C | |||||||||||||
3 | 3N4/TiO2−x | DBS/CNNS | calcination | [ | thermal reduction process | 200] | precursor: mixture of urea and NaBH4[47] | ||||||||
pH = 5.5 | [MOX] = 50 mg·L | −1 | 300 W Xe lamp | Catalyst dose = 1 g·L−1CO production rate: 265.2 µmol g |
moxifloxacin (MOX)−1h−1 | [ | 300 W xenon lamp (λ > 420 nm)210][58] |
~100.0% | 30 | [234][82] | |||||
4 | 0.1 chl/0.1 SA-TiO2 | incipient wetness impregnation | pH = 6 [CPX] = 10 mg·L−1 Catalyst dose = 0.75 g·L−1 |
Ciprofloxacin (CPX) | Blue LED light (λ = 457 nm) | ∼75% | 120 | [235][83] | |||||||
5 | ZnO/ZnIn2S4 (ZnO/ZIS) | hydrothermal | pH = 3 [CS] = 10 mg·L−1 Catalyst dose = 0.40 g·L−1 |
ceftriaxone sodium (CS) | |||||||||||
246 | |||||||||||||||
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94 | |||||||||||||||
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Entry | Photocatalyst | Synthesis Method | Photocatalytic Test Condition | H | 2 | Activity (μmol h | −1 | g | −1 | ) | Pollutant: Photodegradation Efficiency (%) | Ref. | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 0.5 wt.% Pt/Zn-V-20 | Calcination, hydrothermal |
300 W Xe lamp AM 1.5 G filter 0.5 M Na2SO4, 15% CH3OH |
5230.4 | 2,2′,4,4′- tetrahydroxybenzophenone (BP-2): (99.6), methylene blue (MB): (99.4), acetaminophen (AAP): (92.0) |
[253][100] | |||||||||||
500 W xenon lamp. | |||||||||||||||||
2 | g-C3N4/BiOI/CdS | calcination, solvothermal, and solution chemical deposition |
300-W Xe lamp with a λ > 420 nm cutoff filter |
863.44 | bisphenol A: (98.62) | [254][101] | |||||||||||
3 | Mo1@CNNTs | template free polymerization | 300 W xenon lamp coupled with λ = 420 nm cutoff filter. | 4861 | tetracycline hydrochloride: (97.3) | [255][102] | 4 | TiB2@AuNPs | spin-coating deposition |
Ultrasonic assisted liquid-phase exfoliation | |||||||
4 | Co-COF: | mix and sonication | sunlight simulator | (1 Sun), 0.1 M KOH |
precursor: TAPT, 120 °C, 96 h | 300 W Xe lamp (Microsolar 300, cut-off 420 nm), (λ ≥ 420 nm)10 mA cm−2 |
CO production rate: 18,000 µmol g−1h−1 H2 production rate: 800 µmol g[201][48] |
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−1 | h | ||||||||||||||||
4 | −1 | [g-C3N4/polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)]// [TiO2/polyaniline (PANI)/PMMA]// [self-assembled 3, 4, 9, 10-perylene tetraformyl diimide (PDI)/PMMA] (TMOP) | [ | 211 | ] | [59] | tri-axial parallel electrospinning | simulated sunlight | 536.7 | Ciprofloxacin: (88.99), tetracycline hydrochloride: (91.15), chlortetracycline hydrochloride: (77.55), levofloxacin: (69.51), and colored dye methylene blue: (92.50) |
[256][103] | 5 | NiO/BiVO4 | dip-coating | Ink: Ni nanocrystals | 1 M KBi, hole scavenger: 0.2 M Na2SO3 |
4.41 mA cm−2 |
5 | GQDs/C-BN | hydrothermal | precursors: boric acid, melamine and glucose | [ | 300 W Xe lamp (λ = 200–420 nm or λ > 700 nm) | CO production rate: 33.47 μmol g−1h−1202][49] | |||||||||||
[ | 216 | ] | [ | 85.3% | |||||||||||||
5 | 150 | SCN/NiS-1 | hydrothermal | [ | visible light (400 nm filter) irradiation | 236 | ] | [84] | |||||||||
700.9 | Rhodamine B (RhB): (98.5) | [ | 257 | ] | 6 | β-FeOOH/CN | particle-to-substrate contacts |
precursor: DCDA and TCY |
AM 1.5G illumination, 0.1 M NaOH |
320 μA cm−2 | [203][50] | ||||||
64 | ] | [ | 104 | ] | 6 | In2S3/MQDs/SmFeO3 (IMS) | 7 | Fe2O3 (Hematite) | CVD | precursor: ferrocene organometallic compound | Simulator solar AM 1.5 G filter, 1 M NaOH |
2.5 mA cm−2 | [204][51] | ||||
8 | Ir SAs/NiO/Ni/ ZrO2/n-Si |
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6 | Ni(OH)2 | hydrolyzation of CaO | stirring for 24 h at 298.15 K. | LED lamps (5 W, λ ≥ 420 nm) |
CO production rate: 9.2 μmol g−1h−1 | [217 | sonication | ||||||||||
6 | ZnS@Zn0.58Cd0.42S | ] | [ | 65 | ] | ||||||||||||
[SMX] = 10 mg·L | −1 | , catalyst dose = 0.6 g·L | −1 | 7 | S-ZnS/ZnIn2S4 | hydrothermal | precursor: Methylimidazole | 300 W Xe lamp cut-off filter (λ > 420 nm) |
CO production: 2075.7 ± 63.0 μmol g−1h−1 H2 production: 2912.3 ± 185.9 μmol g−1h−1 |
[218][66] | ALD process |
precursor: TICP | simulated solar AM 1.5 G, 1 M NaOH |
27.7 mA cm−2 | [ | ||
8 | 205 | ] | [ | 52 | ] | ||||||||||||
9 | Ni(OH)2/Cl-BiVO4 | impregnation method | precursor: 0.5 M NH4Cl |
AM1.5 G filter, 100 mW cm− 2, 0.5 M K3BO3, pH = 9.5 |
4.33 mA cm− 2 | [206][53] | |||||||||||
10 | Bi2S3-Cu3BiS3 | in-situ decoration | precursor: Cu:Bi 3:1 ink | simulated solar light (AM 1.5G), K–Pi buffer |
7.8 mA cm−2 | [207][54] | |||||||||||
11 | BiVO4/Vox | electrodeposition | precursor: BiOI |
simulated solar light (AM 1.5G), 1 M borate buffer |
6.29 mA cm−2 | [208][55] |
Entry | photocatalyst | Synthesis Method | Preparation Condition | Photocatalytic Conditions | Photocatalytic Activity (Product Yield) |
Ref. | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | MOF [Cu3Th6(µ3-O)4(µ3-OH)4(cpb•)12] [FeIII | ||||||||||||||||||
hydrothermal | |||||||||||||||||||
pH = 5.3 | |||||||||||||||||||
Xe lamp (CEL-PF300-T9, CEAU) with an AM1.5G filter | sulfamethoxazole (SMX) | 36000 | 300 W Xe lamp | Helianthine: | 98.0% and 95.4% of SMX | 120 and 90 min, | (94.2) | [258][105][237][85] | |||||||||||
7 | MgCr-LDH | formamide-assisted co-precipitation and mild hydrothermal | pH = 7 [MB] = 20 mg·L−1 | ||||||||||||||||
7 | NbO-BRGO | Catalyst dose = 30 mg | methylene blue (MB) | solar light | 90.6 | 120 | [238][86] | ||||||||||||
hydrothermal | 300 W Xe > 400 nm | 1742 | crystal violet (CV): (97.6) | [ | 259 | ][106] | BP-CN | mix and sonication | Precursor: [NH3OH]+Cl | 8− and melamine | ZnO-CT | a green synthesis route using lemon leaf extract | pH = 7 300 W Xe lamp |
[CR] = 20 mg·L−1 Catalyst dose = 0.4 g·L−1 |
Congo red (CR) | Natural sunlight, (λ = 408 nm) | 97 | 90 | [239][87] |
8 | ZnIn2S4@SiO2@TiO2 | sol–gel and solvothermal | CO production rate: 44.6 μmol g | 300 W xenon lamp | −1h−1 | 618.3 | methylene blue: (99.7)[219][67] |
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[ | 260 | ] | [ | 107 | ] | 9 | P-doped PCN | thermal polymerization method | 9 | Au/La2Ti2O7/Ag3PO4precursor: Melamine and NaH2PO2⋅H2O | 300 W Xe lamp, | The in-situ precipitation | pH = 9.6 [RhB] = 10 mg·L−1 Catalyst dose = 1 g·L−1 cut-off filter 420 nm |
CH4 production rate: 1.1 μmol g | Rhodamine (BRhB)−1 h−1 | [220] | Natural sunlight[68] | ||
100 | 6 | ||||||||||||||||||
9 | Ag@TiO2-P25-5%MoS2 | [ | Combination of photocatalysts | solar simulator composed of two white light bulbs (60 watts) | 1792 | 240 | ] | [88] | |||||||||||
Ciprofloxacin: | (75) | [ | 261 | ] | [108] | 10 | Ni-BiOBr | hydrothermal | precursor: Bi(NO3)3⋅5H2O | 300 W xenon lamp cut-off 380 nm filter (λ ≥ 380 nm) | CO production rate: 378.7 μmol g−1h−1 |
[221][69] |
10 | |||||||||||||||
UiO-66-NH | |||||||||||||||
2 | |||||||||||||||
/PhC | |||||||||||||||
2 | |||||||||||||||
Cu | |||||||||||||||
hydrothermal | |||||||||||||||
pH = 9 | [NOR] = 10 mg·L | −1 Catalyst dose = 0.2 g·L−1 |
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10 | norfloxacin (NOR) | 9 W LED lamp | (455 nm) | MoS | 97.9 | 60 | 2/ZnO[241 | hydrothermal | 250 W metal halide lamp |
235][89] | |||||
Ciprofloxacin: | (89) | [ | 262 | ] | [109] | 11 | CuPd/ZnO | hydrothermal and chemical reduction | pH = 2 [OM] = 40 mg·L−1 Catalyst dose = 0.5 wt.% |
methyl orange(MO) | solar simulator (λ = 440 nm) |
95.3 | 45 | [242][90] | |
12 | mesoporous Fe/Al/La trimetallic nano-oxide(FAL) | chemical route | pH = 7 [dyes] = 10−5 M Catalyst dose = 0.30 g/100 mL |
black 5 (RB5) methylene blue (MB) direct blue 71 (DB71) and |
Sunlight | 93.85 ± 2 90.51 ± 2 91.16 ± 2 |
90 45 60 |
[243][91] | |||||||
13 | Fe2O3/CNT/MIL | hydrothermal | pH = 7 [OFX] = 20 mg·L−1, Catalyst dose = 100 mg·L−1 |
ofloxacin (OFX) | 300 W Xe lamp (λ > 420 nm) | 99.3 | 60 | [244][92] | |||||||
14 | α-NiMoO4/ZnFe2O4/BC | Pyrolysis and hydrothermal | pH = 10 [KP] = 10 mg·L−1, Catalyst dose = 100 mg·L−1 |
ketoprofen (KP) | visible light (UV cutoff 150 W LS xenon arc lamp) | 98.65 | 180 | [245][93] | |||||||
15 | 0D/2D AgI/CAU-17 | deposition-precipitation | pH(for RhB degradation) = 3 [RhB] = 10 mg·L−1, [KP] = 10 mg·L−1, [MO] = 5 mg·L−1, Catalyst dose = 0.25 mg·L−1 |
Rhodamine B (RhB) Tetracycline (TC) methyl orange (MO) |
500 W Xe lamp | 96.7 81.3 50.3 |
90 | [ |