Nanocelluloses (NCs), with their remarkable characteristics, have proven to be one of the most promising “green” materials of our times and have received special attention from researchers in nanomaterials. A diversity of new functional materials with a wide range of biomedical applications has been designed based on the most desirable properties of NCs, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and their special physicochemical properties.
NCs Type |
Drug Delivery System |
Drug |
Drug-Release Conditions |
Toxicological Drug Release Mechanism |
Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CNC |
cCNC/SA double-membrane hydrogels |
CH, EGF |
PBS, pH 7.4, 37 °C; t90% = 3 days (CH); t90% = 4 to 8 days (EGF). |
Swelling/erosion |
[89] |
TEMPO-oxidized CNC/CSos |
PrHy, IMI |
PBS, pH 7.4, room temp.; t40% = 12 min (PrHy); t80% = 2 h (IMI). |
- |
[90] |
|
CNC-HDQ complex |
HDQ |
dH2O, room temp., in the dark; t40% = 1 h; t80% = 4 h. |
- |
[91] |
|
CS/CNC nanocomposite hydrogels |
C |
NCs Type |
TE Systems |
Applications |
References |
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] | |||
[ | |||
] | |||
Abbreviations: CS—Chitosan; PVA—Poly(vinyl) alcohol; Gel—Gelatin; ApA—Phosphonate; HA—Hyaluronic acid; Col—Collagen; GMs—Gelatin microspheres; PEG—Poly(ethylene glycol); PAAm—Polyacrylamide; a-CNC—Anionic CNC; HAp—Hydroxyapatite; Alg—Alginate; PMS—Paraffin microspheres; DBC—Dialdehyde bacterial cellulose; Col-p—Collagen peptide; PA—Procyanidin; Ap—Carbonate apatite; OGP—Osteogenic growth peptide; CNTs—Carbon nanotubes.
Material |
Cellulose Source |
Toxicological Experiment |
Experiment Cells Lines |
Cells Lines |
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Material |
Cellulose Source |
Toxicological Experiment |
Cells Toxicological Results |
Lines Toxicological Results Results and Possible Application |
Toxicological Results Results and Possible Ref. |
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Results and | Application |
Ref. |
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Possible | Application | Ref. |
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CNF |
CNF/CS nanocomposites |
Artificial skin |
[30] |
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CNC |
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CNF |
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BNC |
CNF-based thixotropic gels |
Breast cancer | ||||||||||||||||
CNC |
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CNF |
Bleached dissolving pulp Norway spruce ( | |||||||||||||||||
BNC scaffolds Picea bies) |
[50] |
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Cotton (Whatman 1 filter paper) |
MTS assay; ATP assay. |
G. xylinus MTT assay [3H]-thymidine uptake assay BEAS 2B |
CCk-8 assay hMDMs |
|||||||||||||||
HUVECs, |
SMCs, Fibroblasts |
Cytotoxicity at 100 mg/mL; No micronuclei induction after exposure to 2.5–100 mg/mL; No induction of proinflammatory cytokines in hMDMs. |
BC tubes have no toxic or side effects on vessel-related cells cultured on their surface; the surface of BC tubes was beneficial for cell attachment, proliferation, and ingrowth. Toxicity impact on lungs or bone marrow |
Vascular TE [135] |
[166] |
Double crosslinking 3D-printed CNF hydrogels |
||||||||||||
CNC |
CNF Skin TE |
Pinus radiata pulp [111][ |
LDH assay MTT assay | |||||||||||||||
Fibroblast cell | Lack of cytotoxicity after 3 days of increasing the cells’ viability. |
Wound healing |
[149] |
|||||||||||||||
L929; | Thymocytes |
PBMNCs |
CNFs were not cytotoxic; CNC has non-inflammatory and on-immunogenic properties. |
Implantable biomaterials TE |
||||||||||||||
CNC- carboxyl groups |
Softwood cellulose pulp |
MTS assay |
CaCO-2, |
HEKHeLa, MDCK, J774 |
NHDF CNC not exhibit any significant cytotoxicity; can exert stress on cells if they possess a high charge density; Charge-dependent decrease in mitochondrial activity (charge contents > 3.9 mmol/g). |
No toxic effect for keratinocytes and fibroblasts; Non-immunotoxic.Drug delivery |
Wound dressings [136] |
[152] |
||||||||||
Octenidine-loaded BNC |
K. xylinus |
ATP assay |
HaCaT |
CNF/PVA bilayer scaffold SGF, pH 1.2, 37 |
Skin TE |
[ | ||||||||||||
Pure BNC has no influence on HaCaT viability; |
OCT/BNC extracts exhibited time and concentration-dependent toxicity; cell-damaging effects were observed at extract conc >10% and longer incubation times (24 and 48 h). |
Active wound dressing |
[167] |
c-CNCs t-CNCs CNF °C; 115][ |
CNC Cotton Tunicate from 120 min: 65% (0.5% CS/CNC); 50% (2.5% CS/CNC). |
129] |
||||||||||||
Stuela clava |
Wood pulp LDH assay |
TB assay Ritger–Peppas model; n = 0.61–0.66; Non-Fickian diffusion. |
A549 |
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BNC | A549 | CNF caused a significant decrease in cell viability, at 72 h; |
Sugar cane molasses MDMDecrease in GSH levels after exposure to CNF. |
LDH activity MDDC |
HepG2/C3A [92] |
|||||||||||||
The aspect ratio in combination with CNCs dose influences the uptake by the 3D co-culture system of the human epithelial airway barrier system. |
Toxicity impact on lungs |
CNC toxicity [137] |
BC is not cytotoxic (conc. < 170 μg/mL); [138] |
|||||||||||||||
BNC has a protective effect against CP-induced myelotoxicity and enotoxicity. | Biomaterial |
TE |
[168] |
QC/cCNC/β-GP nanocomposite hydrogels |
DOX |
PBS, pH 7.4, 37 °C; |
CNF/Gel/ApA |
U-NFC A-NFC C-NFC Bone TE t |
[116] 90% = 4 days (0% cCNC); t90% = 7 days (1% cCNC); t90% = 17 days (2.5% cCNC). |
[ Swelling/erosion |
130] [93] |
|||||||
CNC |
Wood pulp |
Never-dried bleached sulfite softwood dissolving pulp |
AB assay | |||||||||||||||
Vaccarin- loaded BNC |
TB assay LDH assays |
G. xylinus A549 |
MTT assay HDF MRC-5 THP-1 CNC were nontoxic to A549 cells; |
L929 No cytotoxicity for treated NFC;CNC induced a robust inflammatory response; HDF and MRC-5 cells: the metabolic activity of the treated cells was comparable to that of the negative control;CNC particles induced a more robust inflammatory response compared to NCF. |
THP-1 cells: a higher metabolic activity of the NFC-treated; U-CNF has an inflammatory response, which was suppressed when surface charges were introduced on the CNFs. |
BNC-Vac has lower toxicity and better biocompatibility than BNC; RGR for both BNC and BNC-Vac was above 74%. Comparable toxicity of CNC with CNF |
Toxicity impacts on dermal, lung, and macrophage cells [ |
Wound dressing 138] |
[153] |
Gel/CNC nanocomposite hydrogels |
TPh |
SGF, pH 1.2, 37 °C; 24 h: 90% (5% CNC); 85% (10% CNC); 60% (25% CNC). |
- |
CNC |
||||
[ | ] |
CNCgel CNCdry CNC/PVA nanocomposites |
Skin TE |
Wood pulp |
||||||||||||||
LDH assay |
CNF |
Bleached Eucalyptus Globulus kraft pulp |
MTT assay MH-S [ |
A54994] |
||||||||||||||
THP-1 |
Low conc. (1.5 and 5 μg/cm2) induce no cytotoxicity; A high dose of CNCdry induced a decrease in cell viability; CNC exposure further altered the secretion of cytokines. |
Cytotoxic effect at the highest dose tested; Genotoxic effects in A549 cells in the co-cultures; No oxidative DNA damages. |
TE |
[154] |
||||||||||||||
CNF |
Curauá fibers (Ananas erectifolius L. B. Smith) | |||||||||||||||||
Gentamycin-loaded BNC |
K. xylinus |
NR assay |
U2-OS |
No cytotoxicity on osteoblast culture after 24 h; gentamycin released from G-BNC after 8 h (400 mg/L) and 16 h (600 mg/L) is enough to eliminate S. aureus and P. aeruginosa biofilms. Toxicity impact on lungs |
Bone regeneration TE[139] |
[170] |
m-CNC/Alg hydrogels |
Ibu |
Gel/HA/CNC hydrogels |
Skin wound repair PBS, pH 7.4, 37 °C; t = 0–30 min; 45%–60% burst release; |
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CNC |
Wheat bran t = 30–330 min; sustained release. |
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Curcumin- loaded BNC | MTT assay |
Fickian diffusion |
K. xylinus Cytotoxicity assays ISO 10993-5 |
MTS Caco-2 [95] |
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Vero | Dose-dependent decrease in cell viability, but only with significant results above 1000 μg/mL; |
The cell viability decreased significantly upon contact with CNC90 (88.09%) at 2000 μg/mL, although CNC30 (92.81%) and CNC60 (93.11%) did not significantly decrease the cell viability. |
Biocompatible nanocomposites |
[140] |
assay CNF shows no cytotoxicity and suitable biocompatibility; The morphology and basic functions of the cells are not affected by the direct contact with the tested materials. |
Scaffold TE |
HNDF |
The cytotoxic effect on the cells depended on the conc. of curcumin; at 0.5 mg/mL C, a strong cytotoxicity for BNC-C and BNC-DC180; BNC-DC300 suitable cytotoxicity, even at higher extract conc. |
Wound dressing [155] |
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[ | ] |
CNF |
Col/CNC/GMs PDA/TEMPO-CNF composite hydrogels |
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K-CNC R-CNC Blood vessel |
CNF Rubberwood fiber Kenaf-bast fiber |
Softwood bleached kraft fiberTCH |
LDH PBS; “On-off” drug release under NIR irradiation; 120 min: 60% (pH 5.0); 30% (pH 7.4); 15 h: 70% (pH 5.0); 55% (pH 7.4). |
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MTT assay |
assay RAW 264.7 HaCaT Korsmeyer–Peppas model; |
Caco-2, HT-29MTX Raji B Non-Fickian diffusion. |
Cytotoxicity of K-CNC and R-CNC is not significant up to 700 μg/mL; |
Minimal or no cytotoxicity in a cellular model of the intestinal epithelium (for CNC-25 at 0.75% and 1.5% w/w, as well as for CNF-50 at 0.75% w/K-CNC and R-CNC induced the formation of ROS in RAW264.7 macrophages. w). [96] |
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Biocompatible nanocomposites | [141] |
Biocompatible material |
[156] |
CNF/HPMC nanocomposites |
KT |
PEG-grafted CNC nanocomposites |
||||||||||||
CNC CNC-FL CNC-HM Bone TE |
Cellulose pulp PBS, pH 7.4; 8 h: 95% (5% CNF), 62% (0.5% CNF), 56% (0.75% CNF), 37% (1% CNF). |
[120][ Non-Fickian diffusion; n = 0.52–0.61. |
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CNF |
Banana peel bran 134] |
Bone TE |
[162] |
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NFC hydrogels crosslinked with Ca2+ |
Bleached sulfite softwood pulp |
AB assay |
hDF |
Cell viability about 78% indicates no toxic effects. No inflammatory response of blood-derived mononuclear cells was observed in relation to the cytokines secretion. |
Wound healing |
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BNC-GTMAC BNC-GHDE |
G. xylinus |
AB assay |
HaCaT |
No cytotoxicity; Suitable wound closure rates in the presence of the samples, with complete coverage of the scratched area after 5 days. |
Wound dressing |
[172] |
MTT assay |
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MTT assay |
ATCC PCS201012, Caco-2 [97] |
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BNC in nanocomposites | A375 |
No cytotoxicity in direct and indirect contact assays. |
CNF conc. < 500 mg/mL are not cytotoxic to Caco-2 cells; Viability of Caco-2 decreased with increasing CNF conc. Drug delivery |
Biocompatible material [142] |
[157] |
CNF/Alg hydrogels |
CNC/PVA hybrid hydrogels MH |
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CNC in nanocomposites |
Soft TE SGF, pH 1.2; SIF, pH 7.4, 37 °C; T40% = 90 min (CNF/Alg-50/50, SGF) t80% = 145 min (CNF/Alg-50/50, SIF). |
[121] | ||||||||||||||||
U-NFC A-NFC [135 |
Fickian diffusion mechanism |
[98] |
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] | ||||||||||||||||||
BNC/ALG bilayer composites |
BNC | |||||||||||||||||
C-NFC P-NFC S-NFC |
Never-dried bleached sulfite softwood dissolving pulp |
G. xylinus Resazurin Assay |
Caco-2 |
ISO10993-5:2009 None of the NFCs inducing cytotoxic effects in the intestinal cells; The differences in physics-chemical properties of the studied NFCs were not reflected in the Caco-2 response in terms of metabolic activity and cell membrane integrity. |
Drug release in gastrointestinal tract (GIT) |
[ |
hNCs hMNC |
The composites were found to be noncytotoxic, with a cell viability of 98% and a uniform distribution of cells on the entire porous layer. |
Neocartilage TE 158] |
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[ | ] |
CNC/PAAm composite hydrogels |
U-NFC C-NFC H-NFC P-NFC S-NFCBNC-SA hybrid hydrogels |
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BNC-COL-Ap composites TE |
Ibu |
Never-dried bleached sulfite softwood dissolving pulp |
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Collagen/CNCs/ GMs scaffolds |
MCC |
G. xylinus MTT assay MTS Assay |
MTT assay PBS, pH 1.5, 7.0 and 11.8; 37 °C; 24 h: 90% (pH 11.8); 80% (pH 7.0); and 60% (pH 1.5); PBS, pH 7.4; 0.15 V, 0.3 V, 0.5 V; 24 h: 95% (0.5 V); 85% (0.3 V and 0.15 V); 80% (0 V). |
HUVECs BEAS-2B Korsmeyer–Peppas model; Non-Fickian diffusion; pH; |
Osteoblastic cells n = 0.498–0.772; E-field; n = 0.700–0.491. |
No cytotoxicity; Excellent biocompatibility. No cytotoxicity for the highest tested dose (500 μg/mL) for any of the NFCs; None of the NFCs induced genotoxic effects; All samples were able to increase intracellular formation of ROS. [99] |
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Vascular TE |
In vitro toxicity of NFCs |
The composites did not exhibit cytotoxicity effects. [143] |
[ |
Bone regeneration TE 159] |
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[ | ] |
TCH-loaded BNC composites |
a-CNC/Gel hydrogels composite TCH |
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CNC |
c-CNFCNC-AEM cys-CNFCNC-AEMA Breast cancer |
Never-dried bleached sulfite softwood dissolving pulp HEPES buffers, pH 7, 37 °C; 3 h: ~100% (free TCH); 90% (0.5% TCH); 60% (0.3% TCH); 20% (0.1% TCH); 10% (0.05% TCH); |
Softwood pulp [123][ - |
PB assay |
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ALG/BCN/COL | ] |
hDF |
composite |
A. xylinum |
CCk-8 assay [100] |
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OCT-loaded BNC | ||||||||||||||||||
ATP assay |
J774 A.1 PBMNC |
cys-CNF did not induce toxic effects on hDF when tested at a concentration up to 0.5 mg/mL, nor did the starting material c-NF |
MC3T3-E1One cationic CNC induced secretion of proinflammatory cytokine IL-1b associated with increase mitochondrial-derived ROS and extracellular ATP levels. |
Drug and DNA delivery systems |
cys-CNF presented a dual action in vitro: inhibition of metalloproteinase and radical scavenging activity. [ |
Wound dressing 144] |
[160] |
TEMPO-CNC reinforced PVA hydrogels | ||||||||||
hAMS |
MC3T3-E1 and hams cells were viable and proliferate well, after 2 and 5 days of incubation—suitable cytocompatibility. |
TE |
[175] |
OCT |
Corneal implant |
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PLA/CNCg-PEG nanocomposites |
Southern pine PBS, pH 7.4, 32 °C; 8 h: 82.7% ± 2.6% in first; 24 h 91.8% ± 2.0% after |
Ritger–Peppas model; n = 0.51–0.55; Non-Fickian diffusion. |
[101] |
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[ | ][138] |
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Live/dead assays |
CNF in nanocomposites | hMSCs |
Suitable biocompatibility; Nontoxic effect on hMSCs proliferation. |
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BC-PHEMA composites | Bone TE |
A. xylinum |
AB assay |
rMSCs |
BC-PHEMA composites are nontoxic and biocompatible; did not influence the morphology and proliferation of the rMSCs. |
Wound dressing [145] |
[176] |
PI-loaded BNC |
CNF PI |
BNC | L-CNF PI buffer, 32 °C; |
|||||||
TEMPO-CNC CNC L-CNC BNC/Fibrin composites | t 84% = 48 h. |
Ritger–Peppas model; |
New blood vessel n |
reinforced PVA hydrogels = 0.608–0.612 |
Dissolving pulp [78] |
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MCC |
AB assay | [ |
AB assay |
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BC/COL composites |
G. xylinus |
Live/ Dead assay HCE-2cells 102] |
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A549 | THP-1 |
Nontoxicity; Excellent biocompatibility; The HCE-2 cells viability above the 70%. |
UCBMSCs Cytotoxic and inflammatory responses were dependent on type, size, and hydrophobicity Low or inexistent toxicity of all CNMs in A549 cells Ophthalmic applications |
Dose-dependent cytotoxic and inflammatory responses in THP-1 cells. [146 |
PHMB-loaded BNC |
PHMB |
PHMB buffer, 32 °C; t87% = 48 h. |
Ritger–Peppas model; n = 0.863–0.871 |
[102] |
Abbreviations: cCNC—Cationic cellulose nanocrystals; SA—Sodium alginate; CH—Ceftazidime hydrate; EGF—Epidermal growth factor human; PBS—Phosphate-buffered saline; CSos—Chitosan oligosaccharide; PrHy—Procaine hydrochloride; IMI—Imipramine hydrochloride; HDQ—Hydroquinone; C—Curcumin; CS—Chitosan; QC—Quaternized cellulose; β-GP—β-glycerophosphate; DOX—Doxorubicin; Gel—Gelatin; TPh—Theophylline; m-CNC—Magnetic cellulose nanocrystals; NIR—Near-infrared spectroscopy; PDA—Polydopamine; HPMC—Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose; KT—Ketorolac tromethamine; Alg—Alginate; MH—Metformin hydrochloride; SGF—Simulated gastric fluid; SIF—Simulated intestinal fluid; HEPES—(4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazine- ethanesulfonic acid); TCH—Tetracycline hydrochloride; AM—Acrylamide; Ibu—Ibupofren; OCT—Octenidine; PI—Povidone-iodine; PHMB—Polihexanide; dH2O—Distilled water.
] | |||||||||||
No cytotoxicity; | |||||||||||
Provide advanced microenvironment for UCB-MSCs viability and in vitro proliferation; | |||||||||||
Significantly elevated proteins and calcium deposition. | |||||||||||
TE | |||||||||||
Bone regeneration | TE |
[161] | |||||||||
BNC-Gel/HAp nanocomposites |
Bone TE |
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[ | ] |
PVA/CNC nanocomposites [125] |
Sugarcane bagasse [139] |
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MTT assay |
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GEL/BNC nanocomposite | L929 |
A. xylinum |
MTT |
||||||||
CNF /GEL/ApA |
Bleached birch pulp |
MTT assay |
assay MSCs Noncytotoxic effect; |
HEK293 Strong attachment and proliferation of human fibroblast skin cells on the scaffold. |
CNFs and CNF-COOHs have no cytotoxicity; CNF-COOH-ApA cells expressed a low level of stress, visible through lower cell density and the cell inclusions. |
BNG showed negligible cytotoxicity. TE scaffolds |
[147] |
Wound dressing |
[178] |
Alg/BNC/Col composite |
|
GA-HA-CNC hydrogels TE |
MCC |
||||||||||
CCK-8 assay |
NIH-3T3 |
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BNC-GEL | Cell viability, at 1, 4, and 7 days, higher than 70% limit; | No foreign body response. |
Skin TE |
nanocomposite |
- |
MTS assay |
MRC-5 [[163 |
The samples have no cytotoxicity, and the cells retained their morphology in direct contact with the membrane,148] |
] |
||
The cells attaching to the GEL porous site, while not attaching to the GEL thin-coated BC side. | Bone regeneration TE |
[179] |
3D BNC/PMS scaffolds |
||||||||
CS/Gel/NCC/CP nanocomposites TE; soft tissues regeneration |
[ |
TEMPO-CNF hydrogel127] |
Soft wood |
Bleached birch kraft pulp [141] |
|||||||
cellulose fibers |
MTT assay |
MTT assay |
hDF |
||||||||
Chitosan-BNC |
K. xylinus |
MTT assay |
GM07492 Nontoxicity effect and great hDF cells viability. |
Wound healing |
[164 |
No cytotoxicity for the BC group and BC-Chi-Cip group; Ciprofloxacin-loaded BC-Chi samples exhibited a significant but slight decrease in the metabolic activity of cells (moderate cytotoxicity). |
Wound dressing ] |
[180] |
DBC/Col-p |
CNC/PVA TE; tissues regeneration |
[128 |
NFC/QCRs nanocomposites | |||||||||||
GO/n-HAp/BNC/b-glucan MCC |
biocomposite Brown algae ][142] |
||||||||||
- AB assay |
NR assay HCE-2 |
MC3T3-E1 Nontoxic and cytocompatible profile of the CNC-PVA hydrogel; Suitable biocompatibility toward HCE-2. |
All samples had suitable potential for cell adhesion and proliferation with very low cytotoxicity The order of the cell viability: BgC-1.4 (93%) > BgC-1.3 (79.8%) > BgC-1.2 (71.4%) > BgC-1.1 (68.9%). Ophthalmic |
Bone regenerationapplications |
TE [150] |
BNC/PA/Gel/HAp |
Bone repair |
||||
Abbreviations: BEAS 2B—Human bronchial epithelial cells; hMDMs—Monocyte-derived macrophages; Caco-2—Human colon carcinoma cells; HeLa—Human cervix; MDCK—Dog kidney; J774—Mouse macrophages; A549—Epithelial cells; MDM—Human blood monocyte-derived macrophages; MDDC—Dendritic cells; MH-S—Murine alveolar macrophages; RAW 264.7—Macrophages; ATCC PCS201012—Primary human fibroblasts; A375—Malignant melanoma cells; J774A.1—Mouse monocyte/macrophage; PBMNC—Peripheral blood mononuclear cells; hMSCs—Human mesenchymal stem cells; L929—Mouse fibroblast; NIH-3T3—Fibroblast; HCE-2—Human corneal epithelial cells; LDH assay—Lactate dehydrogenase cytotoxicity assay; MTT assay—(3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay; TB assay—Trypan blue exclusion staining cell viability assay; MTS assay—CellTiter-Glo luminescent cell viability assay; MCC—Microcrystalline cellulose.
Material |
Cellulose Source | ||
---|---|---|---|
MTT assay | |||
L929 | |||
Cells viability is higher than 80% (for 5 to 1000 μg/mL CNFs/QCRs), indicating that there is no cytotoxicity. | |||
Wound healing | |||
[ | ] | ||
(BNC-Col)-Ap/OGP peptides |
Bone TE |
||
BNC-CNTs composites |
Bone regeneration |
||
BNC |
Ear cartilage TE |
||
BNC/Alg bilayer composite |
Neocartilage formation |
[133 |
[ |
] |
] |
[ |
] |
BNC/CS composites |
Cartilage tissue regeneration |
[ |
Abbreviations: HUVECs—Human umbilical vein endothelial cells; SMCs—Smooth muscle cells; HaCaT—Human keratinocytes cells; HepG2/C3A—Human C3A hepatoma cells; L929—Mouse skin fibroblast cells; U2-OS—Osteoblast cell; HNDF—Human neonatal dermal fibroblasts; MC3T3-E1—Mouse osteoblastic cells; rMSCs—Mouse mesenchymal stem cells; UCBMSCs—Human umbilical cord blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells; MRC-5—Normal lung tissues cells; GM07492—Human fibroblast cells; CCk-8 assay—Cholecystokinin-octopeptide proliferation assay; ATP assay—Adenosine triphosphate assay; LDH assay—Lactate dehydrogenase assay; NR assay—Neutral red assay; MTS assay—CellTiter 96® Aqueous Non-Radioactive Cell Proliferation assay; AB assay—Alamar blue assay; G. xylinus—Gluconacetobacter xylinus; K. xylinus—Komagataeibacter xylinus; A. xylinum—Acetobacter xylinum; BNC- GTMAC—BNC functionalized with glycidyl trime-thylammonium chloride (GTMAC); BNC-GHDE—BNC functionalized with glycidyl hexadecyl ether (GHDE).