Efficient governments, defined as those that provide digital public services and effectively support their citizens through modern tools and channels, can be the result of a variety of factors, including education, urbanization, infrastructure, and economic growth as measured by GDP per capita.
Authors | Period and Region/Countries/Entities Studied | Empirical Model | Main Input Variable(s) | Output(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hauner and Kyobe [9][7] | 1980–2004; 114 countries | Panel model | Education and health spending Years of schooling Income per capita |
Government efficiency |
Voghouei and Jamali [10][8] | 2003–2010; 51 countries | Dynamic panel model—system-GMM | Information technology expenditure by government Total information technology expenditure in economy Consumer price index Transparency Corruption Ethnic fractionalization |
Government efficiency (government spending as share of GDP) |
Lizińska et al. [11][9] | 2015–2016 1220 municipalities in Poland |
Survey | Number of tasks actually implemented by local governments Number of tasks which could be implemented |
Institutional efficiency of local governments |
Balaguer-Coll et al. [12][10] | 2009–2015; The Valencian Region | Robust order methodology | Population density Unemployed job seekers Disposable income Accommodation vacancies Political ideology of the incumbent party Herfindahl index Voter turnout in local elections Tax revenues Transfer revenues Indebtedness Number of mistakes in the budgetary statements |
Index of (in)efficiency |
Halaskova et al. [13][11] | 2012–2015 and 2015–2018; 27 EU countries | Data envelopment analysis (DEA) | Local government expenditure by function | Government effectiveness Corruption perceptions Index |
Wen et al. [14][12] | 1996–2018; 166 countries | Panel data | Government efficiency Bureaucracy quality |
Patents and trademarks |
Ding et al. [15][13] | 2002–2018; 156 countries | Panel data | Government efficiency | Health outcomes (disability-adjusted life years (DALYs)) |
Reinecke and Schmerer [16][14] | 2001–2006; Chinese firms | Panel data regression | Government efficiency Firm age Sales State-owned enterprises Employment and capital stock Total factor productivity (TFP) |
Export share on total output |
Chen and Yoon [17][15] | 2010–2016; A-share listed firms from 27 Chinese provincial government | 2SLS regression | Administrative efficiency of local governments | R&D expenditure over total assets Number of patent applications |
Amir and Gokmenoglu [18][16] | 2002–2015; 31 OECD countries | Panel data model | Government efficiency Corruption Employment Population Urbanization |
Financial development |
Gupta and Verhoeven [19][17] | 1984–1995; 37 countries in Africa | Free disposal hull (FDH) analysis | Education and health spending by the government | Life expectancy Infant mortality Immunizations against diseases School enrolment Adult illiteracy |
Geys [20][18] | 2000; Flemish region in Belgium | Stochastic parametric reference technology | Current expenditures in the municipality | Number of subsistence grants beneficiaries Number of students in local primary schools Public recreational facilities Length of municipal roads. |
Liu et al. [21][19] | 2007; 22 Local governments in Taiwan |
Data envelopment analysis (DEA) model; Sharpe ratio. | Employment Accumulation of fixed assets |
Real disposable income per capita Unemployment rate Volume of waste clearance Air pollution |
Asatryan and De Witte [22][20] | 2003–2011; German State of Bavaria | Fully non-parametric approach | Per capita expenditure | Pupil population Child population Elderly patient population Green and recreational areasEmployees paying social security |
Chang et al. [23][21] | 1990–2014; 31 OECD countries | Group-mean dynamic common correlated estimator (DCCE) panel regression Panel cointegration Vector-error-correction model (VECM) |
Corruption, political ideology Real per capita GDP FDI Oil prices Electricity regulation Gas regulation |
Energy intensity |
Seo et al. [24][22] | 2015–2016; 42 central administrative agencies in the Republic of Korea | Data envelopment analysis (DEA) | IT budget Number of employees |
Number of policies for the adoption of Government 3.0 Number of open public data (API) Number of public services that can be applied for online |
Alonso and Andrews [25][23] |
2002–2008; local governments in the United Kingdom | Dynamic panel data model | Total per capita service expenditure, excluding expenditure on central administration. | Fiscal decentralization Fiscal deprivation Number of pupils attending the General Certificate of Secondary Education examination Older people being helped to live at home Waste management |
Chen and Paudel [26][24] |
2004–2017; 30 provinces in China | Malmquist–Luenberger index Dynamic panel model |
Number of people employed by government Provincial-owned economic capital stock Annual financial expenditure. |
GDP per capita Unemployment rate Consumer price index Ratio of middle school teachers to students Density of transportation infrastructure Number of hospital beds per capita Number of cases of corruption per 10,000 people Rate of labor dispute settlement |
Pacheco et al. [27][25] | 2008–2018; 324 Chilean municipalities | Parametric models and panel data | Expenditure on personnel Consumer goods and services Expenditure on education Expenditure on health Transfers to health services and centres Transfers to public education schools Municipality population Distance to the regional capital |
Rural and urban municipal education establishments; Enrolment in municipal education establishments Health facilities Maintained green areas; Cleaning services, waste collection and landfill services Drinking water coverage Social organizations |