Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Arturo G. Valdivia-Flores
 + 1174 word(s) 1174 2021-02-04 03:05:01 |
2 format correct
Camila Xu
 Meta information modification 1174 2021-02-07 05:28:47 | |
3 format correct
Camila Xu
 Meta information modification 1174 2021-02-07 05:33:13 | |
4 format correct
Camila Xu
 Meta information modification 1174 2021-02-07 06:33:37 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?
Send video materials Upload full video

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Valdivia-Flores, A.G. Aflatoxins in Dogs Fed. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/7055 (accessed on 29 June 2024).
Valdivia-Flores AG. Aflatoxins in Dogs Fed. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/7055. Accessed June 29, 2024.
Valdivia-Flores, Arturo G.. "Aflatoxins in Dogs Fed" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/7055 (accessed June 29, 2024).
Valdivia-Flores, A.G. (2021, February 04). Aflatoxins in Dogs Fed. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/7055
Valdivia-Flores, Arturo G.. "Aflatoxins in Dogs Fed." Encyclopedia. Web. 04 February, 2021.
Aflatoxins in Dogs Fed
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/toxins13010065

The Aflatoxins (AF) are difuranocoumarin compounds produced as secondary metabolites of fungi of the genus Aspergillus spp. following a polyketide path.

Aspergillus flavus aflatoxicosis biomarkers

1. Aflatoxins and Their Biotransformation Products

A. flavus is the main species of fungus involved in AF production [1][2][3]. Four AF naturally present in agricultural products are described (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2); other forms of AF are derived from the metabolic process of these primary forms within the human or animal body [4]. AF are not destroyed by boiling nor do they confer, color, aroma, or flavor to contaminated ingredients, so they usually go unnoticed by both the owner and the dog [5]. When dogs ingest CDF made with ingredients contaminated with AF, the mycotoxin are absorbed in the duodenum and bind to plasma albumin and proceed to be transported through the bloodstream [6].

In various tissues, especially in the liver and kidneys, AF are biotransformed and bioactivated by isoenzymes of the multiple function oxidase system or cytochromes (CyP450), giving rise to highly active electrophilic forms called 8,9 endo-epoxide and 8, 9 exo-epoxide, which bind and exert an electrophilic attack on subcellular structures [7]. When AF are metabolized (hydrolysis, demethylation, or ketoreduction), they form less toxic intermediate compounds with greater solubility in water (AFM1, AFM2, AFQ1, AFQ2, AFP1, AFP2, and aflatoxicol); therefore, they are eliminated through feces, urine, milk, or egg [8][9]. The most common ways of elimination of metabolites in the urine of dogs is AFM1, as well as traces of AFQ1 [10][11]. When the epoxide binds to DNA, then an AF-DNA adduct (dihydro-8-(N7-guanyl)-9hydroxy-1 AF-N7–guanidine) is formed, which rearranges as AF-formaminopyrimidine (AF-FAPy), or it is excreted through urine as AF-N7guanine, which is considered a biomarker of genotoxic damage from AF [8][9][10][11]. In general, all compounds derived from natural forms of AF, due to the activity of the enzymes that participate in the detoxification process, are considered biomarkers of exposure and damage [12].

An important detoxification mechanism in many animal species is the involvement of a group of enzymes called Glutathione S-transferases (GST) [13]. The function of GST is to bind the epoxide with the reduced glutathione tripeptide (GSH), which loses two amino acids (glycine and glutamate) to be eliminated as a cysteine residue linked to AF, called mercapturic acid or N-acetylcysteine-AF, which is eliminated through bile or urine [14]. Dogs have a reduced GST activity, which makes them especially susceptible to AF damage; in addition, a deficiency of GSH or its three precursor amino acids facilitates the occurrence of the most extensive oxidative injury [15][16][17].

2. Contamination of Feed Ingredients by Aflatoxins

Cereals are usually integrated into dog feeds, especially corn, sorghum, rice, wheat, oats, barley, and millet; they are a good source of carbohydrates, fiber, protein, fat, minerals, and vitamins [18][19]. However, cereals present an important risk for the health of dogs because they are vulnerable to contamination by A. flavus both in the field and in storage [20][21][22]. In some CDF formulations for dogs, pumpkin seeds, chia, quinoa, and even some legumes such as lentils are included among the ingredients due to their high protein and mineral content. However, these ingredients can also be contaminated by some forms of AF [23][24][25]. Furthermore, the incorporation of both potatoes and sweet potatoes in the manufacturing of premium types of dog feeds is used as a source of carbohydrates and fiber. It is reported that the presence of A. flavus and high concentrations of AF can be found in potato tubers [26][27].

Fruits in CDF are used as a natural source of fiber; papaya is one of the main fruits that are included, however, it may have A. flavus in the postharvest, which has effects on its nutritional value, and it may also have AF concentrations [28]. Blueberries are used as antioxidants, although there are reports of A. flavus contamination and concentrations of AFB1, AFB2, y AFG1 [29]. Orange and coconut are other ingredients that are included in some dog feeds, but they can also be contaminated by FA-producing fungal microflora [30][31][32].

Dairy and meat products as well as eggs are added to dog feed as an important source of proteins and fats. However, secondary AF metabolites such as AFM1, AFM2, AFP1 may be found, which can also contaminate these feed ingredients [33]. The AF residues can be located in by-products of animal origin used in the manufacturing of CDF, such as liver, kidneys, muscle, meat, milk, and egg. The residual compounds in eggs, milk and meat are derived from the biotransformation of the original AF ingested in the feed of animals used for food and remain in the dog that ingests the CDF [34].

3. Aflatoxin Contamination in Commercial Dry Feed for Dogs

Natural forms of AFs and its metabolites can be found in the ingredients used to make CDF for dogs (Table 2). Cereals used in the formulation of CDF may contain high levels of AF contamination (0.48–1.081 μg/kg), making them the most likely sources of aflatoxin contamination [35][36]. AFB1 is the most abundant form in open sampling CDF trials, with values that vary widely (<0.5 and 4.946 μg/kg) [37][38]. CDF is classified into economic, premium, or super premium types of dog feeds according to the nutritional quality of the ingredients, but this classification does not guarantee that it is an AF-free product because they are found in all types of CDF [39][40][41]. Therefore, AF present in the CDF are a health risk, which is especially important because CDF is used as the sole or main component of the diet during most of a dog’s life; in addition, all the feed contained on each bag is usually eaten until it is exhausted, suggesting that prolonged ingestion of feed contaminated with these mycotoxins, even at low doses, can have adverse health effects [42].

Table 2. Presence of aflatoxins in commercial dry feed for dogs.

Location Number of Sample (n) Test Mean AF (μg/kg) Positive Samples (%)
Brazil 45 TLC AFB1 (19.0) AFB1 (6.7)
Brazil 180 HPLC AFB1 (7.0) AFB1 (100)
Brazil (AE) 49 (AP) 25 (ASP) 13 HPLC (SF) AF (1.2)
(PF) AF (0.4)
(SPF) AF (0.5)		 AF (95.4)
China 32 LC-MS/MS AFB1 (47.7) AFB1 (87.5)
United States 9 ELISA, TLC, HPLC AFB1 (530)
AFB2 (19.0)		 AFB1 (88.8)
AFB2 (77.7)
Italy (AE) 24 (AP) 24 LC-MS, PLC-MS/MS AFB1 y AFG1 (<0.5)
AFB2 (5.7)
AFG2 (15.8)		 AF (12.0)
Italy 55 UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS AFB1 (4.3) AFB1 (25.8)
Mexico 19 HPLC AFB1 (5.0), AFB2(0.07), AFG1 (0.05), AFG2 (0.03), AFM1 (2.0) AFM2 (0.1) AFP1 (1.1), AFL (0.3) AFB1 (79.0), AFB2 (26.0), AFG1 (63.0), AFG2 (21.0), AFM1 (63.0), AFM2 (89.0), AFP1 (58.0), AFL (47.0)
Mexico 29 HPLC-FL AFB1 (1.6), AFB2(0.1), AFG1 (28.2), AFG2 (1.3), AFM1 (1.8), AFM2 (0.2), AFP1 (1.7), AFL (28.6) AFB1 (76.0), AFB2 (4.0), AFG1 (86.0), AFG2 (93.0), AFM1 (48.0), AFM2 (21.0), AFP1 (100), AFL (100)
Nigeria 30 HPLC AF (9.6) AF (100)
Poland 25 HPLC-FLD AF (0.2) AF (4.0)
South Africa (AE)10 (AP)10 TLC, HPLC-FLD (SF) AFB1 (44.1)
(PF) AFB1 (20.1)		 AFB1 (100)
Turkey 21 ELISA AFB1 (6.6) AFB1 (100)
Turkey 18 ELISA AF 1.75 a 20 AF (16.7)
Brazil Retrospective study HPLC AFB1–AFG1 (89.0–191) -

Definitions: AF: Total aflatoxins; AFB1: Aflatoxin B1; AFB2: Aflatoxin B2; AFG1: Aflatoxin G1; AFG2: Aflatoxin G2; AFL: Aflatoxicol; AFM1: Aflatoxin M1; AFM2: Aflatoxin M2; AFP1: Aflatoxin P1; ELISA: Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay; HPLC: High Performance Liquid Chromatography; LC-MS/MS: Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry; LC-MS: Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry; PLC-MS/MS: Ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry; UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS: ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry; HPLC-FL: Fluorescence High Performance Liquid Chromatography; HPLC-FLD with fluorescence detection (FLD); SF: standard feed; PF: premium feed; SPF: super premium feed.

References

  1. Alshannaq, A.; Yu, J. Occurrence, toxicity, and analysis of major mycotoxins in food. Int. J. Environ. Res. Pub. Health 2017 14, 1–20, doi:10.3390/ijerph14060632.
  2. Bueno, D.J.; Silva, J.O.; Oliver, G. Mycoflora in commercial pet foods. J. Food Protect. 2001, 64, 741–743, doi:10.4315/0362-028x-64.5.741.
  3. Campos, S.G.; Keller, L.M.; Cavaglieri, L.R.; Krüger, C.; Fernández, M.G.; Dalcero, A.M.; Magnoli, C.E.; Rosa, C.A. Aflatoxi-genic fungi and aflatoxin B1 in commercial pet food in Brazil. World Mycotoxin J. 2009, 2, 85–90, doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2008.1020.
  4. Klich, M. Aspergillus flavus: The major producer of aflatoxin. Mol. Plant Pathol. 2007, 8, 713–722, doi:10.1111/J.1364-3703.2007.00436.X.
  5. Aquino, S.; Corrêa, B. Aflatoxins in Pet Foods: A risk to special consumers. In Aflatoxins—Detection, Measurement and Control; Torres-Pacheco, I., Ed.; InTech: Rijeka, Croatia, 2011; pp. 53–74, doi:10.5772/25171.
  6. Tessari, E.N.; Kobashigawa, E.; Cardoso, A.L.; Ledoux, D.R. Effects of Aflatoxin B1 and Fumonisin B1 on blood biochemical. Toxins 2010, 2, 453–460, doi:10.3390/toxins2040453.
  7. Tulayakul, P.; Sakuda, S.; Dong, K.S.; Kumagai, S. Comparative activities of glutathione-S-transferase and dialdehyde re-ductase toward aflatoxin B1 in livers of experimental and farm animals. Toxicon 2005, 46, 204–209.
  8. Yiannikouris, A.; Jouany, J. Mycotoxins in feeds and their fate in animals: A review. Anim. Res. 2002, 51, 81–99, doi:10.1051/animres:2002012.
  9. Galtier, P. Biotransformation and Fate of Mycotoxins. J. Toxicol. 1999, 18, 295–312, doi:10.3109/15569549909009259.
  10. Bingham, A.; Huebner, H.; Phillips, T.; Bauer, J. Identification and reduction of urinary aflatoxin metabolites in dogs. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2004, 42, 1851–1858, doi:10.1016/j.fct.2004.06.016.
  11. Wu, Q.; Jezkova, A.; Yuan, Z.; Pavlikova, L.; Dohnal, V.; Kuca, K. Biological degradation of aflatoxins. Drug Metab. Rev. 2009, 41, 1–7, doi:10.1080/03602530802563850.
  12. Benkerroum, N. Aflatoxins: Producing-molds, structure, health issues and incidence in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Pub. Health 2020, 17, 1215, doi:10.3390/ijerph17041215.
  13. Uribe-Yunda, D.F.; Navas, M.C. Mecanismos moleculares involucrados en la mutagenicidad inducida por aflatoxina B1. Rev. Cienc. Salud. 2012, 10, 403–419.
  14. Rawal, S.; Kim, J.E.; Coulombe, R., Jr. Aflatoxin B1 in poultry: Toxicology, metabolism and prevention. Res. Vet. Sci. 2010, 89, 325–331, doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.04.011.
  15. Bruchim, Y.; Segev, G.; Sela, U.; Bdolah, T.; Salomon, A.; Aroch, I. Accidental fatal aflatoxicosis due to contaminated com-mercial diet in 50 dogs. Res. Vet. Sci. 2012, 93, 279–287, doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2011.07.024.
  16. Mehrzad, J.; Fazel, F.; Pouyamehr, N.; Hosseinkhanil, S.; Dehghani, H. Naturally occurring level of aflatoxin B1 injures hu-man, canine and bovine leukocytes through ATP depletion and caspase activation. Int. J. Toxicol. 2019, 141, 16–25, doi:10.1177/1091581819892613.
  17. Towner, R.A.; Qian, S.Y.; Kadiiska, M.B.; Mason, R.P. In vivo identification of aflatoxin-induced free radicals in rat bile. Free Radic. Biomed. 2003, 35, 1330–1340, doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2003.08.002.
  18. Macías, A.; Rial, C.; Acosta, A.; Henríquez, L.A.; Almeida, M.; Rodríguez, Á.; Zumbado, M.; Boada, L.D.; Zaccaroni, A.; Lu-zardo, O.P. Risk assessment of the exposure to mycotoxins in dogs and cats through the consumption of commercial dry food. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 15, 134592, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134592.
  19. Peterson, D.M. Oat antioxidants. J. Cereal. Sci. 2001, 33, 115–129, doi:10.1006/jcrs.2000.0349.
  20. Wan, J.; Chen, B.; Rao, J.J. Occurrence and preventive strategies to control mycotoxins in cereal-based food. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. F 2019, 19, 1–26, doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12546.
  21. Xu, L.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, Q.; Zhang, W.; Yu, L., Wang, D.; Li, H.; Li, P. An on-site simultaneous semi-quantification of afla-toxin B1, zearalenone, and T-2 toxin in maize- and cereal-based feed via multicolor immunochromatographic Assay. Toxins 2018,10, 87, doi:10.3390/toxins10020087.
  22. Kamala, A.; Ortiz, J.; Kimanya, M.; Haesaert, G., Donoso, S.; Tiisekwa, B.; De Meulenaer, B. Multiple mycotoxin co-occurrence in maize grown in three agro-ecological zones of Tanzania. Food Control 2015, 54, 208–215, doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.02.002.
  23. Herrera, M.; Bervis, N.; Carramiñana, J.J.; Juan, T.; Herrera, A.; Ariño, A.; Lorán, S. Occurrence and exposure assessment of aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol in cereal-based baby foods for infants. Toxins 2019, 11, 150, doi:10.3390/toxins11030150.
  24. Hacıbekiroğlu, I.; Kolak, U. Aflatoxins in various food from Istanbul, Turkey. Food Addit. Contam. B 2013, 6, 260–264, doi:10.1080/19393210.2013.813080.
  25. Nazir, A.; Kalim, I.; Sajjad, M.; Usman, M.; Iqbal, M. Prevalence of aflatoxin contamination in pulses and spices in different regions of Punjab. Chem. Int. 2019, 5, 274–280, doi:10.5281/zenodo.3339415.
  26. Zöngür, A. Investigation of DON and aflatoxin content in Agria and Hermes chips potato cultivars grown in Aksaray, Sivas, Kayseri, Niğde. J. Plant Dis. Protect 2020, 127, 521–527, doi:10.1007/s41348-020-00334-w.
  27. Amri, E.; Lenoi, S. Aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of sun-dried sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) chips in Kahama district, Tanzania. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2016, 4, 55–62, doi:10.12691 /jaem-4-3-2.
  28. Bagwan, N.B. Aflatoxin B1 contamination in papaya fruits (Carica papaya L.) during post harvest pathogenesis. Indian Phyto-path. 2011, 64, 48–50.
  29. Munitz, M.S.; Resnik, S.L.; Pacin, A.; Salas, P.; Gonzalez, H.L.; Montti, M.L.; Drunday, V.; Guillin, E. Mycotoxigenic potential of fungi isolated from freshly harvested Argentinean blueberries. Mycotoxin Res. 2014, 30, 221–229, doi:10.1007/s12550-014-0206-2.
  30. Drusch, S.; Ragab, W. Mycotoxins in fruits, fruit juices, and dried fruits. J. Food Protect 2003, 66, 1514–1527, doi:10.4315/0362-028X-66.8.1514.
  31. AboDalam, T.H.; Amra, H.; Sultan, Y.; Magan, N.; Carlobos, A.L.; Cumagun, C.J.; Yli, T. New genotypes of aflatoxigenic fungi from Egypt and the Philippines. Fungal. Biol. 2020, 10, 142–155, doi:10.5943/cream/10/1/15.
  32. Granados, F.; Redondo, M.; Jaikel, D. Mycotoxin contamination of beverages obtained from tropical crops. Beverages 2018, 4, 83, doi:10.3390/beverages4040083.
  33. Pour, S.H.; Mahmoudi, S.; Masoumi, S.; Rezaie, S.; Barac, A.; Ranjbaran, M.; Oliya, S.; Mehravar, F.; Sasani, E.; Noorbakhsh, F.; Khodavaisy, S. Aflatoxin M1 contamination level in Iranian milk and dairy products: A systematic review and me-ta-analysis. World Mycotoxin J. 2020, 13, 67–82.
  34. Cavus, S.; Tornuk, F.; Sarioglu, K.; Yetim, H. Determination of mold contamination and aflatoxin levels of the meat prod-ucts/ingredients collected from Turkey market. J Food Saf. 2018, 38, 1–7, doi.org/10.1111/jfs.12494.
  35. Pitt, J.I.; Taniwaki, M.H.; Cole, M.B. Mycotoxin production in major crops as influenced by growing, harvesting, storage and processing, with emphasis on the achievement of food safety objectives. Food Control 2013, 32, 205–215, doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.11.023.
  36. Rodríguez, M.; Ramos, A.J.; Prim, M.; Sanchis, V.; Marín, S. Usefulness of the analytical control of aflatoxins in feedstuffs for dairy cows for the prevention of aflatoxin M1 in milk. Mycotoxin Res. 2019, 36, 11–22, doi:10.1007/s12550-019-00362-y.
  37. Fuentes, S.; Carvajal, M.; Ruiz, S.; Martínez, N.C.; Gómez, A.A.; Rojo, F. Presence of mutagens and carcinogens, called afla-toxins, and their hydroxylated metabolites in industrialized food for dogs. J. Microb. Biochem. Technol. 2018 10, 76–86, doi:10.4172/1948-5948.1000399.
  38. Algahtani, F.D.; Morshdy, A.E.; Hussein, M.; Abouelkheir, E.S.; Adeboye, A.; Valentine, A.; Elabbasy, M.T. Biogenic amines and aflatoxins in some imported meat products: Incidence, occurrence, and public health impacts. J. Food Qual. 2020, 8718179, doi:10.1155/2020/8718179.
  39. Singh, S.D.; Chuturgoon, A.A. A comparative analysis of mycotoxin contamination. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 2017, 88, 1–6, doi:10.4102/jsava.v88i0.1488.
  40. Teixeira, E.M.; Frehse, M.S.; Freire, R.L.; Ono, M.A.; Bordini, J.G.; Hirozawa, M.T.; Ono, E.Y. Safety of low and high cost dry feed intended for dogs in Brazil concerning fumonisins, zearalenone and aflatoxins. World Mycotoxin J. 2017, 10, 273–283, doi:10.3920/WMJ2016.2166.
  41. Gazzotti, T.; Biagi, G.; Pagliuca, G.; Pinna, C.; Scardilli, M.; Grandi, M.; Zaghini, G. Occurrence of mycotoxins in extruded commercial dog food. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech. 2015, 202, 81–89, doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.02.004.
  42. Hernandez, E.; Valdivia, A.; Cruz, C.; Saldaña, M.; Quezada, T.; Rangel, E.; Ortiz, R.; Medina, L.; Jaramillo. Diagnosis of subclinical aflatoxicosis by biochemical changes in dairy cows under field conditions. Pak. Vet. J. 2020, 1-6, doi:10.29261/pakvetj/2020.075.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Pharmacology & Pharmacy
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Arturo G. Valdivia-Flores
View Times: 487
Revisions: 4 times (View History)
Update Date: 07 Feb 2021
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Video Production Service
    Feedback