Navigating the Critical Landscape of Today’s Energy Challenges

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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/en17030675

Today’s energy challenges are multifaceted. The green transition involves concrete actions related to increasing energy efficiency, replacing fossil fuels with alternative fuels, producing energy using renewable resources, creating various means of transport that use electric motors, identifying technical solutions that generate an increased energy yield in the case of buildings, and waste reduction, reuse and recycling. In order to attain a climate-neutral environment, it is mandatory to impose regulations, measures and actions to help decarbonize the energy sector. Concretely, the transition to climate neutrality will generate obvious advantages at an economic, social and technological level, for example, the opportunity for economic growth, new business models and new markets, and the generation of new jobs or technological development.

energy transition renewable energy competitiveness of economies resilience of energy markets energy efficiency greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions decarbonization climate neutrality energy security energy poverty

1. Introduction

Energy is the essential engine of human progress and social development and a fundamental pillar in the fabric of every society.

Energy is the ability of a system to produce mechanical work, heat, light, sound or radiation. Energy is also an economic good, which is produced, consumed, traded and regulated in local, regional or global markets. Energy is also a social factor, influencing quality of life, access to basic services, human rights and civic participation. Finally, energy is an environmental factor, affecting the environment, biodiversity, climate and human health.

Energy systems have evolved in a dynamic and complex manner throughout history, depending on resource availability, energy demand, technological progress, political interests and environmental pressures. Globally, the energy system is dominated by fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, coal), which account for over 80% of primary energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. At the regional level, there are significant differences between continents and economic blocs in terms of energy mix, degree of integration, level of development and energy security. At the national level, each country sets its own objectives, strategies and measures to manage energy resources, production, transport, distribution and consumption, according to its specific context and national interests.

The energy transition (green transition) refers to the process of transforming energy systems from a predominantly fossil fuel base to a predominantly renewable energy base, providing cleaner, secure and affordable energy for all. The energy transition is driven by several factors, such as the depletion of fossil fuel resources, increasing energy demand, environmental pollution and climate change, but also by opportunities such as technological development, innovation, competitiveness, cooperation and participation. The energy transition entails profound technical, economic, social and political changes, bringing challenges but also benefits for all actors involved.

Facilitating the energy transition requires a shared vision, an integrated strategy and coordinated action at all levels: global, regional, national and local. A holistic and multidimensional approach is needed, taking into account all aspects of energy: resources, technologies, markets, policies, actors and impact. From infrastructure and storage to efficient integration into existing networks, from fighting energy poverty to ensuring a just transition, from regulatory framework content to financing packages and techniques, these new energy sources require innovative solutions and sustainable strategies to become the main source of power for our society in the future. This requires the active and responsible involvement of all stakeholders: governments, institutions, companies, organizations, researchers, consumers and citizens. A massive and sustainable investment is needed in energy research, development, innovation, education, information and awareness-raising. There is a need for the constant monitoring, evaluation and reporting of progress and results achieved in the energy transition.

2. Renewable Sources of Energy

In recent decades, renewables have become a major topic of interest because of their potential to help reduce carbon emissions and transition to a more sustainable energy system. These alternative energy sources are key pillars towards a sustainable energy transition and a lower dependence on fossil fuels. Solar, wind, hydro, geothermal and biomass have been investigated in detail by researchers, highlighting the benefits and challenges of each.

Although each renewable energy source has its specific benefits and challenges, collectively, they offer considerable potential to meet the world’s energy needs while reducing environmental impacts and addressing climate change.

Researchers’ concerns with these issues are not new. With regard to the role and impact of wind energy on the energy sector, between 1980 and 2005, technological developments in the field of wind turbines generated a 5% annual increase in energy production from such sources ^[1]. The main challenges in wind energy have been and remain the same: the reliability of wind turbine components ^[1]^[2]; the complexity of the mathematical models required, which include an array of variables such as meteorological models for selecting suitable locations; the design of turbines according to site characteristics ^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]; the cost–benefit analysis ^[6]; the impact of wind farms on economic, social and environmental sustainability ^[7]; and the often diverging interests of various governmental and non-governmental organizations ^[6]^[7].

Solar energy is not a new field of study either. Guangul and Chala, 2019, perform a classical SWOT analysis of the development and use of solar energy systems ^[8]. They identify, on the one hand, strengths and opportunities (versatility of the systems, low long-term costs, environmental compatibility) and, on the other hand, weaknesses and threats (high initial costs, low efficiency, possibility to store only a small part of the energy produced, conventional fossil fuel energy systems in use and operation). In another study, Eroğlu and Cüce, 2021, point out other weaknesses (dependence on daylight hours and large areas required for panel installation) but also the vulnerability to unforeseen external environmental factors (the COVID pandemic increased photovoltaic (PV) panel prices from USD 0.228/W to USD 0.27/W) ^[9]. Okkerse and van Bekkum, 1999, ^[10] point to solar energy as the main source that will enable the transition from a fossil fuel-based economy to a plant-based economy, a model that will be able to provide food, energy and materials for the planet’s needs in the medium and distant future. However, the authors identify the major challenge of such a system as the actual limits of available agricultural land.

Presently, there are several possible applications of the third generation of solar PV technologies. Obaideen et al. analyze the following ^[11]: large-scale solar PV power plants (solar farms); residential applications for solar PV systems (PV-powered units for HVAC-heating, ventilation and air conditioning; PV-water pumps); green hydrogen; water desalination; and transportation.

More recent studies examine the impact of AI on solar energy systems. In a study conducted by Mohammad and Mahjabeen in 2023, they argue that artificial intelligence has a revolutionary impact on PV systems ^[12]. By utilizing large volumes of data, including climate patterns, solar radiation levels and geographic data, along with machine learning algorithms, AI facilitates decision making in the design phase of PV systems. This includes the development of smart, orientationally mobile PV panels for optimal solar radiation exposure. Additionally, through the analysis of market data such as price developments and consumption trends, AI contributes to market balance and the more efficient integration of PV systems into the energy system.

Green hydrogen is an energy carrier that can aid in the decarbonization and defossilization of various sectors, including transport, industry and power generation. Several methods exist for producing green hydrogen, but the most common and promising is water electrolysis. This process involves breaking down water into hydrogen and oxygen by applying an electric current. Water electrolysis can be achieved using different types of electrolytes, each of which has advantages and disadvantages in terms of efficiency, cost, sustainability and scalability. A comparative study of these technologies was conducted by Osman et al., 2022, who concluded that PEM (proton exchange membrane) electrolysis has the greatest potential for large-scale green hydrogen production due to its high efficiency, high power density and operational flexibility ^[13]. However, there are different methods of combining hydrogen and renewable energy sources throughout the energy sector. Hassan et al. identifies and studies the following ^[14]: energy-to-energy, energy-to-gas, energy-to-fuel and energy-to-feedstock.

The cost of green hydrogen production depends largely on the cost of electricity produced from renewable sources, which varies according to location, resources, infrastructure and policies. Currently, the cost of green hydrogen is still higher than that of hydrogen produced from fossil fuels. However, this gap is expected to narrow in the future, due to the falling costs of renewables and electrolytes, as well as their increasing efficiency and performance. IRENA 2022, for example, estimates that the cost of green hydrogen could fall from USD 3–6/kg in 2020 to USD 1.5–2.6/kg in 2030 and USD 0.8–1.6/kg in 2050 ^[15].

There are several options for storing and transporting green hydrogen, such as storage under pressure, storage in liquid form, storage in porous or metallic materials, storage in geological formations, or conversion into derived energy carriers such as ammonia, methanol or synthetic hydrocarbons. Each of these options has advantages and disadvantages in terms of efficiency, cost, safety and technological maturity. A review of these options was carried out by Osman et al., 2022, who found that storing hydrogen in geological formations, such as depleted natural gas reservoirs or salt caverns, is the most suitable for long-term storage and for balancing renewable energy supply and demand ^[13].

The environmental impact of green hydrogen depends on how it is produced, stored, transported and used. Green hydrogen produced from renewable energy has a much lower environmental impact than hydrogen produced from fossil fuels because it does not generate direct emissions of greenhouse gases or air pollutants. However, green hydrogen still has an indirect environmental impact due to the consumption of resources, such as water, metals or land, which are needed to build and operate facilities to produce, store, transport and use hydrogen. It is therefore important to carry out a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to assess the environmental impact of green hydrogen across the value chain compared to other energy alternatives. An example of an LCA for green hydrogen production by water electrolysis using solar, wind or hydropower was carried out by Terlouw et al., 2022, who showed that green hydrogen has a lower environmental impact than hydrogen produced from natural gas or coal, but it is higher than that of direct renewable electricity ^[16].

Marine energy is a renewable source generated in a variety of ways from the natural movement of water, including ocean currents, tides, river currents, waves, as well as the heat transfer from deep cold water to surface water.

In a comparison of tidal and wave energy, Chen, 2023, points out the development, the applications and the advantages and disadvantages of using these sources ^[17]. The author shows that while there are only a few places in the world where wave energy can be used on a large scale and profitably, tidal energy offers a significant opportunity for increasing global renewable energy production capacity. However, researchers must focus on reducing prices, developing equipment that can withstand ocean forces, and minimizing environmental impacts.

Tidal energy has the advantage of being predictable, constant and clean, but it also has disadvantages, such as high costs, its impact on the environment and marine biodiversity, its dependence on geographical and climatic conditions, and its intermittent production.

Tidal energy conversion technologies can be classified into two main categories: dam-based technologies (the oldest and most developed, with the iconic Rance power plant in France, which has been in operation since 1966 and has an installed capacity of 240 MW, as an example) ^[18] and turbine-based technologies (less widespread, but with great potential for development, with the MeyGen project in Scotland, which aims to install 269 turbines with a total capacity of 398 MW, as an example) ^[19].

Most scientific work on tidal energy focuses on economic, social and environmental analysis. The economic analysis of tidal energy reveals very high investment costs due to the complexity and size of projects, involving feasibility studies, design, construction, transport and installation. For example, the MeyGen project is estimated to have had an investment cost of around GBP 51 million ^[20]. Operation and maintenance costs are lower but depend on environmental conditions and equipment reliability. The lifetime of tidal energy conversion technologies is estimated at 20–30 years, depending on wear and degradation. Efficiency is variable, depending on the tidal cycle, current speed, turbine efficiency and transmission losses.

Tidal energy can have positive social impacts such as creating jobs, boosting the local economy, diversifying energy sources and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. For example, the MeyGen project is estimated to have created over 100 direct and indirect jobs and contributed to the development of the region’s shipbuilding and metallurgical sectors ^[21]. Tidal energy can also have negative impacts, such as affecting the landscape, cultural heritage, tourism, fishing and navigation ^[18].

From an environmental perspective, tidal energy can be considered a clean energy source, producing no greenhouse gas emissions, radioactive waste or other pollution. For example, it is calculated that the MeyGen project will avoid the emission of over 300,000 tons of CO₂ during its lifetime ^[20]. However, tidal energy can also have negative effects on marine ecosystems, such as altering the hydrological regime, salinity, temperature and sedimentation; destroying or breaking up habitats; disturbing or killing species; interfering with migration or reproduction; and generating noise or electric currents. For example, the Rance power plant was found to have affected the biodiversity of the area, reducing the number and diversity of fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae and bird species, and altering the balance between native and invasive species ^[18].

3. Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency is a complex and multidimensional issue, involving many factors and actors, with important implications for the economy, for society, for the environment and for development.

Energy efficiency can be defined as the ratio of energy services obtained to the energy consumed to produce them ^[22]. Energy efficiency is an important way to reduce energy consumption and waste, improve energy supply security, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, boost economic competitiveness and ensure a transition to a low-carbon economy ^[22]^[23]. Energy efficiency is also a strategic principle of the Energy Union, which aims to create an integrated and diversified internal energy market in the EU ^[23].

The existing literature on energy efficiency covers a wide range of issues, including ways, techniques and tools to promote energy efficiency at the national and global levels. It explores the short-, medium- and long-term benefits and costs of energy efficiency for various industries, sectors and entities. The literature also addresses barriers and challenges in implementing and monitoring energy efficiency, along with indicators and methodologies for measuring energy efficiency. Moreover, it examines the impact of energy efficiency implementation on the environment, health, the common good, quality of life and sustainable development. Additionally, the literature explores the role of innovation, digitalization and artificial intelligence in increasing energy efficiency, and it provides forecasts of future scenarios for energy efficiency.

Energy efficiency can be studied from very different perspectives. A large range of studies ^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28] approach the relation between energy efficiency, rural activities and the agriculture sector. Some other studies are trying to show the impact of some financial issues on energy efficiency: access to credit ^[29], digital finance ^[30] and green bonds ^[31]^[32]. Lately, a new approach has arisen: the energy efficiency of cloud computing systems ^[33]^[34].

An example of a study that examines measures and instruments to promote energy efficiency is that of Bertoldi and Rezessy, which compares energy efficiency policies and programs in EU countries and the US ^[35]. The authors identify the main types of instruments used, such as regulations, standards, labeling, audits, certificates, subsidies, taxes, tariffs, energy performance contracts, energy efficiency funds, energy savings obligations, white certificate trading schemes, and information and education campaigns. The authors assess the impact and effectiveness of these instruments as well as the synergies and complementarities between them. They conclude that there is no single solution for promoting energy efficiency, but rather an optimal mix of instruments tailored to the specific context of each country.

Ürge-Vorsatz et al., 2012, assess the benefits and costs of energy efficiency and estimate the economic impact of energy efficiency at global, regional and sectoral levels ^[36]. The authors use a methodology based on input–output analysis and macroeconomic modeling to calculate the direct and indirect effects of energy efficiency on output, income, employment, investment, consumption and trade balance. They show that energy efficiency has a net positive effect on the economy, generating economic growth, job creation, poverty reduction and improved competitiveness. They also stress the importance of considering the multiplier and rebound effects of energy efficiency, which can mitigate or amplify economic benefits.

Another approach is offered by Gynther et al., 2015 that identifies barriers and challenges in implementing and monitoring energy efficiency and examines the experience and practices of EU countries in reporting energy efficiency progress ^[37]. The authors review the methodologies and indicators used by Member States to measure and evaluate energy efficiency and the difficulties and uncertainties associated with them. They highlight the need to improve the quality and comparability of data, harmonize methodologies and indicators, set clear and realistic objectives and targets, ensure the transparency and verifiability of reports, involve all relevant actors and encourage the exchange of best practices and cooperation between countries.

In a synthesis exploring the results of over 100 scientific studies on the subject, Ryan and Campbell, 2012, review the impact of energy efficiency on the environment, health, quality of life and sustainable development ^[38]. The researchers demonstrate that an enhanced energy efficiency yields a multifaceted array of societal advantages. These include the diminution of greenhouse gas emissions, alongside a concomitant reduction in air, water and soil contaminants. Further, there is an amelioration in both indoor and outdoor air quality. Health risks and mortality rates associated with pollution and climatic alterations are observed to decrease. Additionally, there is an elevation in thermal and acoustic comfort levels. Economic benefits are evidenced through a decrease in energy-related expenditures and an augmentation in the accessibility of energy services. This improvement in energy efficiency contributes to a heightened energy security and resilience. It also acts as a catalyst for innovation and technological advancement. The employment sector benefits from the creation of job opportunities and fosters local development. Collectively, these factors play a pivotal role in the advancement towards achieving sustainable development goals.

One report investigating the role of innovation and digitization in increasing energy efficiency is that by the IEA, which presents trends and opportunities offered by digital technologies for energy efficiency ^[39]. The authors analyze the impact of digitization on different energy sectors such as buildings, transport, industry, electricity, oil and gas. They identify the main digital technologies that can enhance energy efficiency, such as sensors, the internet, data analytics, artificial intelligence, automation, digital platforms and the blockchain. They estimate the potential energy savings and emission reductions associated with digitization, as well as the challenges and risks involved, such as cybersecurity, data protection, access to digital infrastructure, and digital skills. This report makes policy recommendations to support the digital transition to energy efficiency.

Future prospects and scenarios for energy efficiency are summarized in a report produced by the EEA in 2023, which explores possible ways forward for energy efficiency in Europe up to 2050 ^[40]. The authors use an energy optimization model to construct four alternative scenarios, based on different assumptions on the evolution of energy demand, the energy mix, energy prices, energy efficiency investments, energy policy and climate targets ^[40]. They compare the results of the scenarios in terms of energy consumption and production, energy intensity, CO₂ emissions, economic costs and benefits, energy dependency, health and environmental impacts, etc. They conclude that energy efficiency is essential to achieve a significant reduction in CO₂ emissions and to ensure a fair and sustainable transition of the European energy system.

4. Energy Security

Energy security is a complex and dynamic issue that requires a multidisciplinary and multilateral approach. Addressing the issue requires different perspectives: conceptual, geopolitical, geo-economic, geostrategic, legal and institutional. Energy security is a highly topical and important issue for the European Union, which faces major challenges in securing affordable energy supplies, promoting energy efficiency and protecting the environment.

Furfari, 2017 provides a comprehensive and up-to-date analysis of EU energy security, taking into account historical, political, economic, technological and legal developments. The author explains how the EU has developed a common energy policy based on three main objectives: security of supply, competitiveness and sustainability. This book also examines the challenges and opportunities presented by the energy transition, climate change, the internal energy market, the diversification of sources and routes of supply, regional and international cooperation, and the role of the European institutions in the energy field ^[41].

Klare, 2008 presents a challenging perspective on the new geopolitics of energy, which is marked by the increasing energy demand from emerging powers such as China, India and Brazil; declining conventional hydrocarbon reserves; intensifying competition for access to the remaining energy resources; and increasing risks of conflict and instability ^[42]. This book also examines how these trends affect the energy security of the US and its allies, and the possibilities for cooperation and dialogue to avoid a global energy confrontation.

Goldthau and Sitter, 2015 take an original view of the EU’s role in the global political economy of energy, arguing that the EU is a liberal actor in a realistic world ^[43]. The authors argue that the EU has used its normative and regulatory power to influence the behavior of other energy actors, such as producer states, multinational companies, international organizations and civil society. This book also examines how the EU has responded to energy security challenges such as import dependence, price volatility, regional instability and climate change.

Van de Graaf and Sovacool, 2016 successfully attempt another comprehensive and in-depth approach in the form of a collection of 28 chapters covering a wide range of topics related to the international political economy of energy ^[44]. This book addresses issues such as the history and evolution of the global energy system, key actors and institutions, current issues and policies, and future prospects and scenarios. This book provides a comprehensive and interdisciplinary view of energy security, integrating economic, political, social, environmental and technological perspectives.

Scholl and Westphal, 2018 critically examine the EU’s energy security strategy and policy, highlighting the contradictions and tensions between the diverging objectives and interests of Member States, European institutions, external partners and non-state actors ^[45]. This report also examines how the EU has responded to changes in the global energy environment, such as the emergence of new players, transforming markets, developing technologies and growing environmental concerns. This report proposes a number of recommendations to improve the coherence and effectiveness of European energy policy.

A more recent study conducted by Dogan et al., 2023, explores some fundamental questions using data for the new industrialized countries (China, Brazil, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Mexico, the Philippines, Thailand, South Africa and Turkey) ^[46]: “How do energy use and energy security concerns affect carbon emissions that may impact the strategy on developing a cleaner production trajectory? How do financial development and institutional quality coordinate in clarifying the negative effects of resource consumption on environmental sustainability? Is there any association between global economic uncertainty and carbon emissions?…”

5. Energy Poverty

Energy poverty is a relatively new concept in academic research, which has started to be addressed in the last two decades, particularly in the context of climate change and the energy transition. The academic literature mainly analyzes three key issues: causes of energy poverty, measurement indicators and ways to combat it.

There is no universally accepted definition of energy poverty, but rather several approaches and indicators that attempt to measure and characterize this complex and multidimensional phenomenon. In terms of indicators, most studies identify three categories ^[47]^[48]^[49]: energy burden, which is the percentage of household income that is spent on energy bills; energy under-consumption, which refers to the situation where households consume less energy than the minimum needed for a decent living; and housing quality, access to modern energy services, residents’ satisfaction and thermal comfort, and health and environmental impacts.

Energy poverty is determined by several factors, which can be grouped into three main categories ^[50]^[51]^[52]: factors related to household income and socio-economic status, factors related to energy price and availability, and factors related to energy efficiency and housing quality. These factors interact with each other and can generate a vicious cycle of energy poverty. For example, low-income households may have to choose between paying energy bills or other essential needs such as food, health or education. This can lead to an under-consumption of energy, which can affect the comfort and health of residents, as well as their school or work performance. At the same time, low-income households may live in old, uninsulated buildings that require more energy to heat or cool. This can lead to a high energy burden, which can further reduce households’ ability to save and invest. Low-income households may also have limited access to modern and renewable energy sources, which could reduce costs and greenhouse gas emissions. This can lead to a reliance on traditional and polluting energy sources such as wood, coal or gas, which can affect air quality and the environment. A study conducted by Cheikh et al., 2023, states that an increase in GDP per capita is necessary but not enough for reducing energy poverty ^[53]. In order to have a positive effect, the income needs to be more equally distributed.

In conclusion, energy poverty is a major challenge for the sustainable and equitable development of society, which requires an integrated and multidisciplinary approach, taking into account local and national specificities ^[54]. To effectively combat energy poverty, cooperation is needed between different actors such as governments, local authorities, energy suppliers, civic organizations, researchers, media and citizens. There is also a need for the constant monitoring and evaluation of the phenomenon through the collection and analysis of relevant and up-to-date data ^[55].

6. Energy Transition—Challenges

Energy transition is a necessity and an opportunity for the world’s economic, social and environmental development, but it also involves a number of challenges at local, national, regional and global levels. All the issues listed above, energy security, energy efficiency, energy poverty, and increasing the share of renewable energy sources (wind, solar) in the energy mix, are major challenges in making the energy transition a reality. But they are not the only ones.

A just transition is a challenge and a process to ensure a fair and inclusive transition to a carbon-neutral economy that minimizes negative impacts on regions, sectors, workers and communities dependent on fossil fuels. One of the main initiatives of the European Green Pact is the Just Transition Mechanism, a financial instrument designed to mobilize at least EUR 150 billion over the period of 2021–2027 to support regions and Member States with the greatest energy transition challenges. The Just Transition Facility has three main pillars: the Just Transition Fund, which provides grants for investments in infrastructure, innovation, environment and social development; the Investment Plan for Europe, which provides guarantees to attract private investment in areas such as renewable energy, energy efficiency and sustainable mobility; and the European Investment Bank, which provides public loans for energy transition projects ^[56].

A just transition is not only a technical or economic issue, but also a social and political one, requiring the active involvement of all those affected, especially the most vulnerable or marginalized. In a 2020 study, the authors propose a theoretical and practical framework for understanding and implementing a just transition based on four principles: solidarity, participation, coherence and anticipation ^[57].

In another paper on the same topic, the authors outline the origin and evolution of the concept, which was initially adopted by the US labor movement, then by the environmental and climate justice movement, and finally by international climate negotiations ^[58]. They also provide an analytical framework to describe the range of definitions and perspectives of the different actors involved in a just transition. One of the key aspects is scope, which includes both distributional impact—i.e., who and what is affected by the transition—and intention (ideological preference between reforming or transforming existing political and economic systems). The other aspect is social inclusion, which refers to the degree of recognition and procedural justice for various groups. The framework does not seek to identify a single “correct” definition of the just transition, but rather to capture a range of ideologies and approaches to the concept. The final section of this paper suggests that the next stage of the work of a just transition will be to advance solutions and apply lessons learned. The authors list several priorities for future research, including concrete tools and strategies, more developing country case studies, more effective social engagement and new funding methods.

One of the major difficulties facing the energy transition process is how to measure and evaluate the state of transition. Singh et al., 2019 produce a synthesis of aggregated indicators constructed with the aim of providing an overview of the phenomenon ^[59]. One of the most relevant such indicators is considered to be the ETI (Energy Transition Index) ^[60].

It should also be remembered that there is no consensus on the viability of a system that produces electricity using 100% renewable sources. Some authors consider the feasibility of such a system to be a myth ^[61].

Other authors focus on the effects of recent crises on the energy transition process. Neacsa et al., 2022 identify the effects of the COVID pandemic crisis such as the delay and cancellation of investment projects; the volatility in oil, gas and energy prices; and job insecurity for millions of energy workers ^[62]. Skalamera, 2023, analyses the mutations of energy geopolitics after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, identifying the repositioning of energy interdependencies, the transformation of indigenous clean energy production into an instrument of energy security, and the vulnerability of supply chains from China with specific green energy technologies ^[63]. European Union countries should leverage renewable energy to boost their economies. Renewable energy not only generates new job opportunities but also cuts down energy import dependence, stimulating the economy. The EU needs to carry out deeper and wider research in renewable energy, implement more effective energy policies and foster economies of scale for a unified European energy market ^[64].

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