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Makrygiannis, I.; Athanasiadis, V.; Chatzimitakos, T.; Mantiniotou, M.; Bozinou, E.; Lalas, S.I. Apricot Kernel By-Products and Their Value. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/54338 (accessed on 18 May 2024).
Makrygiannis I, Athanasiadis V, Chatzimitakos T, Mantiniotou M, Bozinou E, Lalas SI. Apricot Kernel By-Products and Their Value. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/54338. Accessed May 18, 2024.
Makrygiannis, Ioannis, Vassilis Athanasiadis, Theodoros Chatzimitakos, Martha Mantiniotou, Eleni Bozinou, Stavros I. Lalas. "Apricot Kernel By-Products and Their Value" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/54338 (accessed May 18, 2024).
Makrygiannis, I., Athanasiadis, V., Chatzimitakos, T., Mantiniotou, M., Bozinou, E., & Lalas, S.I. (2024, January 25). Apricot Kernel By-Products and Their Value. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/54338
Makrygiannis, Ioannis, et al. "Apricot Kernel By-Products and Their Value." Encyclopedia. Web. 25 January, 2024.
Apricot Kernel By-Products and Their Value
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/waste2010001

Stone fruits, such as the apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), are frequently consumed. As such, a substantial volume of apricot waste is generated at each stage of the food supply chain, including harvesting, processing, packaging, warehousing, transportation, retailing, and eventual consumption. Apricot kernels are recognized for their abundance of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols and tocopherols, which find utility in diverse sectors including cosmetology and the food industry. Both conventional and green methods are employed, and generally, green methods lead to higher extraction efficiency. The antimicrobial properties of apricot kernel essential oil have been widely recognized, leading to its extensive historical usage in the treatment of diverse ailments. In addition, apricot kernel oil possesses the capacity to serve as a viable resource for renewable fuels and chemicals.

Prunus armeniaca kernel kernel oil antioxidant extraction

1. Introduction

Apricots (Prunus armeniaca L.), a widely consumed fruit worldwide, belong to the genus Prunus and the family Rosaceae [1]. Apricot trees are small- to average-sized, deciduous trees that reach a maximum height of about 8 to 12 m when fully grown. The 40 cm diameter tree trunk has a greyish-brown surface, and its outspread canopy is made up of twisted branches. The oval-shaped leaves of the tree have a pointed tip and measure 5–9 cm in length and 4–8 cm in width. The underside of the leaves have a hint of yellow, but their surface is a deep green color [2]. The flowers have five petals, a width of 2 to 4 cm, and open in April and May, contingent on the cultivar and surrounding circumstances. It takes the fruit three to six months to fully develop and ripen [3]. It is a drupe and is 3–5 cm wide, though some types can get up to 8 cm wide. The fruit has a yellow or reddish-orange color and a smooth (glabrous) or velvety (pubescent) surface. One side of the fruit has a ridge that runs down it. A single, 1.5 cm wide seed is positioned in the center of the fruit and is covered by a hard shell. Together, the seed along with the shell make up the fruit stone, which has a grooved surface and a gritty texture [4]. 
Apricots, which originated in China, were introduced to the Mediterranean region [5]. Apricots are important fruits for human nutrition and have been cultivated for a long time [6]. They are used to make juices and canned products, or eaten either fresh or dried. An estimated 40 million tons of apricots are produced annually, with Turkey and Iran leading the world’s production [6]. Rich in polyphenols, vitamins and carotenoids, apricots are fruits with a high nutritional value [7]. Roughly 7% of the fruit is made up of seed, which is regarded as waste. About 18 to 38% of the seed is made up of apricot kernels, which are contained in the pit or stone. These kernels are valuable commercially because they are used to produce oil and are also used in the cosmetics industry. Additionally, apricot kernels are used in the production of food products, thermal energy storage, and the creation of antimicrobial films [8][9]. One of the initiatives to stop deaths from microbial infections, which are recognized to be a leading cause of death globally, was the creation of antimicrobial films [10][11]. Additionally, research has shown that polyphenols’ ability to prevent heart disease and cancer is one of their many health benefits for people [12][13][14].
The United Nations projects that by 2050, there will be 9.7 billion people on the planet, up from 7.7 billion in 2019 [15]. This possibility presents a number of concerns regarding the expected twofold increase in the consumption of fuels, fossil metals, biomass, and minerals, as well as the projected 70% increase in annual waste production if current trends continue for the next 40 years [16]. These ideas contradict the trend toward a circular economy and more sustainable development. The circular economy is a production and consumption model that promotes the life span of products by advocating for practices such as recycling, leasing, repairing, sharing, refurbishing, and reusing of existing materials and products [17]. A crucial element of the proposed circular bio-based economy involves the conversion of biomass wastes and residues into valuable commodities. It means cutting waste to a minimum. Upon reaching the end of its functional lifespan, every effort is made to retain the materials of a product within the economic system [18]. These have the potential to be productively utilized repeatedly, adding more value to the waste [19]. In alignment with the objective of a circular economy and enhanced resource efficiency, the European Union (EU) is strategically transitioning from a linear to a circular economy. This transition involves the incorporation of new inputs and resources, coupled with the conversion of waste into valuable resources [20][21]. In this context, research about circular economy and reuse of materials is of high importance. 
The need for new materials that can aid in energy conservation has increased due to the worldwide crisis concerning energy resources [22]. As a by-product of processing apricots, apricot kernel shells (AKS) can be recovered and utilized again in different fields [23]. Here are a few instances of how AKS can be utilized: as a biomass fuel with a high calorific value to produce heat and electricity, as animal feed, as a highly porous material made of carbon added as a soil amendment to enhance the quality of the soil, as a lightweight building content, etc. When combined with cement, the shells can create lightweight, well-insulated concrete [24]. Given the consequences of inappropriate waste management and nonrecycling, recovering apricot kernel shells can have a major positive environmental impact as well as financial gains [25]. Nonrenewable fuels have been replaced with biofuels. Moreover, waste, vegetable, and animal oils can be used as fuels in place of conventional diesel fuels. Because fatty acids are the primary by-product of the synthesis of apricot kernels, they are regarded as a renewable fuel source [26]. A significant quantity of the apricot kernel shell is a by-product of agriculture. These by-products were once utilized as fuel in rural areas, but more recently, the creation of liquid fuel and activated carbon has been promoted. Because it is an inexpensive precursor, it is crucial to assess the potential of apricot kernel shells in the production of liquid fuel and activated carbon [27][28][29][30][31].
Regarding this matter, the apricot seed has attracted considerable attention in research. Apricot seeds have significant amounts of antioxidant and polyphenolic compounds, both of which have significant pharmacological roles. Foods high in fiber and low in fat are emerging developments in the food industries. Except for fats, proteins, and trace minerals, apricot kernels contain a substantial amount of dietary fiber that may be beneficial to human health. However, one must also consider the amount of macro- and micro-molecules required to maintain sufficient nutritional value. It is believed that there may be oil sources in apricot kernel seeds. Apricot kernel oil contains high levels of certain vitamins and minerals, such as potassium and magnesium.

2. Apricot Kernel By-Products and Their Value

2.1. Apricot Kernel Biomass

The investigation published by Kancabas Kilinc and Karakaya [32] involved the preparation of a suspension of apricot kernel milk, utilizing raw and roasted apricot kernels (AK) of the Hacıhaliloğlu variety. The AKs underwent a roasting procedure at 170 °C and the total lipid, protein, and ash contents of AKs and AK milk were quantified. To produce AK milk, the kernel was immersed in ultrapure water at ambient temperature and left to soak overnight. The mixture underwent agitation using a blender and was subsequently filtered through cheesecloth. Based on the results obtained from gas chromatography, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and palmitic acid were identified as the primary fatty acids. The process of roasting was observed to result in the aggregation of oil bodies in AK milk, as compared to the oil bodies in unroasted samples. The proteins present in AK milk and roasted AK milk underwent varying degrees of hydrolysis during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Nevertheless, it was found that pepsin-resistant proteins were present in both samples, and aggregation of the oil bodies was noticed. Furthermore, it was observed that a small number of oil bodies, varying in size, remained intact following the completion of the process of intestinal digestion of AK milk. Nevertheless, the process of disaggregation was not observed during a 120 min period of intestinal digestion of roasted AK milk. Furthermore, it should be noted that a volume of 250 mL of AK milk contains approximately 50 g of kernel, which is equivalent to a mere 12.5 mg of amygdalin. This quantity is significantly below the toxic threshold of 200 mg, a dosage that could potentially induce poisoning in a child weighing 20 kg [33].
Lolli et al. [34] assessed a single step enzymatic extraction technique, employing a protease, to simultaneously and sustainably extract oils and proteins from the seeds or/and kernels of various citrus, stone, and exotic fruits employing a one-pot protease in an aqueous medium. Among others, AKs were examined. The AK’s ash protein fat and total dietary fibers were determined, and their values were 1.0, 5.237, 5.3, and 93% w/w of their dry weight, respectively. The fat content was revealed to be the second highest of all the fruits under examination, following the avocado seed. The protein hydrolysates yield of apricot seeds was ~47% but exhibited a relatively low nutritional quality due to the presence of limiting amino acids, namely histidine, methionine, and lysine. The highest amounts of amino acids identified in apricot seeds were 179 mg/g asparagine and aspartic acid, 172 mg/g glycine and glutamine, 86 mg/g phenylalanine and tyrosine, and 70 mg/g alanine. In contrast, the fruit seed/kernel oils exhibited a notable nutritional profile, characterized by a significant abundance of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic acid (>25%) and linoleic acid (up to 40%).
The investigation by Makrygiannis et al. [35] examined the extraction process of polyphenols from AK biomass. In order to achieve this objective, a widely used extraction method utilizing water as the solvent was implemented. The investigation involved the examination of deep eutectic solvents (DES) in order to improve the extraction yield. DES are considered green solvents, which are of high purity, nontoxic, and biodegradable [36]. Furthermore, the investigation also encompassed the evaluation of pulsed electric field (PEF) as an independent extraction technique or as a supplementary procedure. The DES solvent was formulated through combining glycerol as a hydrogen bond donor and choline chloride as a hydrogen bond acceptor. A solution was created by mixing glycerol and choline chloride in a molar ratio of 2:1 (w/w). The mixture was placed in a glass vial that was sealed tightly and heated to a temperature between 80 and 90 °C for a period of 90 min while being agitated until the formation of a visually clear liquid. Subsequently, the DES was subjected to dilution with water, resulting in a concentration of 80% (w/w) in order to facilitate subsequent extraction processes. The samples were subjected to PEF treatment for a period of 15 min. The electric field strength used was 1.0 kV/cm, with a pulse duration of 10 μs and a pulse period of 1000 μs. Based on the findings, it was evident that the application of PEF before the extraction process led to a significant 88% rise in the total polyphenol content (TPC). Similarly, with the utilization of glycerol, choline chloride (2:1 w/w) DES resulted in a significant elevation of the TPC by approximately 70%. Upon the combination of the PEF and DES treatment, a notable increase of 173% was observed. According to the information provided above, it can be assumed that AK biomass exhibits significant potential as a rich reservoir of polyphenols, particularly when employing the suggested extraction methodology.
In addition, the same research team [37] attempted to extract oil from AKs (‘Bebeco’ cultivar) and analyze their composition and antioxidant properties. The study utilized samples derived from the by-products of an apricot cannery over a span of two years. A widely utilized extraction methodology was implemented, employing hexane as the solvent. Subsequently, an examination of the fatty acid composition of the oil was conducted, alongside the evaluation of its antioxidant properties through the utilization of multiple techniques. The findings of the study demonstrated that the oil derived from AKs possessed a notable abundance of oleic and palmitoleic acids, both of which have been associated with various health advantages. Regarding the volatile compounds present in the oil, the primary compounds identified were 2-methyl propanal, benzaldehyde, and benzyl alcohol. The primary constituent of the essential oil derived from the kernel was determined to be benzaldehyde. In addition, the oil displayed a diminished level of antioxidant activity, as evidenced by its capacity to effectively neutralize free radicals. In summary, the results of the study indicated that AKs possess significant potential as a valuable oil source, which can be utilized in various applications within the food and cosmetic sectors.
A study was carried out by Pop et al. [38] to quantify various compounds and their antioxidant properties from sea buckthorn berries and apricot pulp and kernels. A combination of methylene, petroleum ether, and acetate in a ratio of 1:1:1 (v/v/v) was used for the extraction process. Carotenoids and tocopherols were separated using the reverse phase HPLC method, and the antioxidant contents were found using spectrophotometry and the fluorescence absorbance technique. Apricot pulp was found to contain 3.51 mg of carotenoids per 100 g of pulp, with β-carotene being the most abundant type. Although AK had more tocopherols than fruit pulp, γ-tocopherol was the main tocopherol found. Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) was used to quantify the antioxidant capacities. It was found that apricot pulp had 0.59 μM TEAC/g of fresh weight (FW) while apricot kernel had 0.05 μM TEAC/g FW. Their findings corroborated those that indicated the antioxidant properties of apricot fruit and kernels were associated with TPC, carotenoids, and tocopherols. On the contrary, TPC decreases post-harvest, while lipophilic compounds like carotenoids and tocopherol exhibit enhanced antioxidant properties [39].

2.2. Apricot Kernel Oil

Gupta et al. [40] aimed to determine the principal characteristics, such as fruit, stone, and kernel weight, as well as the kernel and oil recovery of apricots (Prunus armeniaca Linn.). The attributes were evaluated in stones gathered from various places within Himachal Pradesh. Additionally, the physicochemical characteristics of the crude oil were also analyzed. The oil was obtained through a filter press. The average weight of apricot fruits varied from 8.0 to 15.1 g, while the percentage of stone recovery ranged from 12.7 to 22.2%. The weight of the stone itself was found to be between 1.78 and 1.92 g. Moreover, the analysis revealed that the recovery rate of the kernel ranged from 30.7 to 33.7%, while the kernels yielded crude oil ranging from 45.6 to 46.3%. The research findings indicated that the hue of AKO was observed to be yellow. Additionally, the acid value, peroxide value, iodine value, and saponification value were determined to be within the ranges of 2.27 to 2.78 mg potassium hydroxide (KOH)/g, 5.12–5.27 meq/kg, 100.2 to 100.4 g I2/100 g, and 189.8 to 191.3 mg KOH/g oil, respectively. The analysis of the fatty acid composition of the oil revealed that the predominant fatty acids present were oleic acid (62.07–70.6%), linoleic acid (20.5–27.76%), linolenic acid (0.4–1.42%), and palmitic acid (5.0–7.79%). In contrast, palmitoleic acid was found in smaller quantities (0.48–0.70%). The oil exhibited a vitamin E content ranging from 72 to 107 mg per 100 g. The fatty acid composition of apricot oils suggests their potential suitability as edible oils. Additionally, the presence of vitamin E in these oils makes them appropriate for incorporation into cosmetic and hydrating creams designed for dry skin, as well as for the creation of massage oils and for applications in industries [41].
Zhang et al. [42] assessed the in vivo possibility of apricot kernel oil (AKO) cardioprotective effects against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion in a rat model. Five distinct groups of rats were utilized in the experiment: sham-operated, ischemia-reperfusion, low dose AKO-treated ischemia-reperfusion, medium dose AKO-treated ischemia-reperfusion, and high dose AKO-treated ischemia-reperfusion. Food and water were made available to all rats without restriction. The low dose was AKO + ischemia-reperfusion, the medium dose was AKO + ischemia-reperfusion, and the high dose was AKO + ischemia-reperfusion; the groups were administered a daily dosage of 2, 6, and 10 mL/kg of body weight of AKO, respectively, for a duration of 14 days prior to the ischemia-reperfusion procedure. AKO significantly decreased both the size of infarcts and the proportion of infarct weight to total heart weight, as evidenced by the staining of tetrazolium chloride. AKO showed cardioprotective effects against myocardial ischemia–reperfusion injury by reducing infarct size and serum creatine kinase and glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase activity. In order for the myocardium to produce creatine kinase and glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase, myocardial cells that are damaged or destroyed should rupture or render the cardiac membrane permeable, thereby allowing enzymes to escape. These enzymes enter the bloodstream and increase serum concentration. This effect was observed in all three AKO-treated groups when compared to the group subjected to ischemia-reperfusion. Similar beneficial effects were also observed on the activities of serum creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase. The activities of myocardial catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and constitutive nitric oxide synthase, along with the concentrations of nitric oxide that exhibited an increase in AKO-treated rats. Conversely, the content of malondialdehyde and inducible nitric oxide synthase decreased in these rats. The AKO was also characterized for its composition. Total phenol content, determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu method, was 0.18 ± 0.02 mg GAE (gallic acid equivalent)/g. The fatty acid composition of the AKO was evaluated via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and found to consist of 66.4% oleic acid, 25.5% linoleic acid, 4.8% palmitic acid, 1.2% stearic acid, 1.1% palmitoleic acid, 0.5% linolenic acid, 0.2% peanut monoenoic acid, 0.2% erucic acid, and 0.1% arachidic acid. Tocopherol content was assessed through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and it was 22.0 mg/100 g oil of the AKO. The results of this study indicated that AKO exhibited significant cardioprotective properties, indicating its potential as a dietary supplement for the management and prevention of myocardial infarctions.
The research carried out by Karaboğa et al. [43] examined the potential gastroprotective properties of AKO of ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in a rat model. Male Wistar albino rats were divided into three distinct groups for the purpose of the experiment: control, ethanol, and AKO + ethanol. The fatty acid composition of AKO was analyzed through GC-MS. The operational definition of the gastric ulcer index was the percentage of the gastric mucosa that was comprised of ulcerated tissue. Gastric tissue was analyzed via immunohistochemical iNOS staining, TUNEL staining for apoptosis detection, ELISA for quantification of gastric IL-10 and IL-6 expression, and assays for catalase, malondialdehyde, and superoxide dismutase. In contrast to the control group, the ethanol-treated group exhibited a more pronounced manifestation of gastric ulcers, increased concentrations of MDA, inducible nitric oxide synthase-positive and TUNEL-positive cells, and elevated levels of IL-6. The group treated with a combination of AKO and ethanol demonstrated a notable reduction in gastric lesions in comparison to the group treated solely with ethanol. AKO exhibits protective properties on the gastric mucosa of rats when exposed to ethanol-induced injury. This protective effect is attributed to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and antiapoptotic properties. Consequently, the application of AKO may prove beneficial in mitigating the severity of gastric ulcers.
Pavlović et al. [44] assessed the levels of fatty acid, tocopherol, and amygdalin in AKOs utilizing two different methods, namely cold pressing and supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction. During the SC-CO2 process, the oil was collected over a period of 5 h at a pressure of 300 bar and a temperature of 40 °C until the complete extraction of oil from the raw material. The tocopherol concentration in cold-pressed oil was notably reduced (94 mg 100/g of oil) in comparison to SC-CO2 oil (50–252 mg/100 g of oil). The β- and γ-tocopherols exhibited prominence in cold-pressed oil, whereas the presence of α-tocopherol was not discernible. The total tocopherol concentration underwent a gradual decrease during the SC-CO2 extraction process, especially between the first collection at 1 h and the final collection at 5 h. The concentration decreased from 252 mg/100 g of oil to 50 mg/100 g of oil. The fatty acid composition analysis revealed that palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids were the most abundant in SC-CO2 extracts, accounting for 5.93%, 57.33%, and 33.81%, respectively. These proportions were comparable to the fatty acid composition of cold-pressed oil, which consists of 5.48%, 62.73%, and 29.18% palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acid, respectively. The amygdalin content in cold-pressed oil was found to be a modest quantity of 0.40 mg/g of oil, while oil obtained through the SC-CO2 extraction method exhibited a slightly lower amygdalin content of 0.20 mg/g of oil. Based on established protocols, oils generated through both methodologies exhibited a level of quality that is deemed acceptable for consumption, as evidenced by their low peroxide number, free fatty acid content, insoluble impurities, and moisture content.
The chemical and biological characteristics of AKOs derived from five different varieties cultivated in Poland were examined and analyzed by Stryjecka et al. [45]. The oils were extracted through Sohxlet with n-hexane and then subjected to a water bath. The oils that were extracted exhibited an iodine value (g of I2/100 g of oil) peaking at 99.2. Additionally, a refractive index of 1.4675 was observed at a temperature of 40 °C. It was determined that these oils had a saponification value of 189 mg of KOH/g of oil and contained 0.68 percent unsaponifiable matter. In relation to the oxidation state, the specific extinction values of the oils were recorded as 2.55 and 0.94, respectively, at wavelengths of 232 nm and 268 nm. Furthermore, it was ascertained that the peroxide value was 1.40 meq O2/kg, and the p-anisidine value was 1.42 meq O2/kg. The most prevalent fatty acid identified in the oils was oleic acid (70.70%), with linoleic acid (22.41%), palmitic acid (3.14%), stearic acid (1.4%), linolenic acid (0.90%), and palmitoleic acid (0.70%) following suit. The oils obtained from the five distinct apricot cultivars contained varying concentrations of α-, β-, and γ-tocopherols, which were as follows: 19.6 to 40.0 mg/kg, 315.4 to 502.3 mg/kg, and 28.3 to 58.5 mg/kg, respectively. The range of values for the antioxidant capacity of the AKOs, as determined via the ferric reducing-antioxidant power (FRAP) assay, was 1.07 to 1.38 mM Fe2+/L. Furthermore, the analysis revealed that the concentrations of TPC and β-carotene in these oils varied between 42.3–66.8 μg/g and 0.85–1.22 mM gallic acid/L, respectively. The findings suggested that, among the cultivars that were examined, the ‘Somo’ cultivar exhibited the highest oil content and possessed the greatest antioxidant activity. The findings of the research indicate that apricot seeds possess the potential to serve as a viable oil source, which can be utilized in both dietary and cosmetic contexts.
Next, Hao et al. [46] used apricot kernel as a primary substance employed for the purpose of conducting a comparative analysis of the production output of AKO. This analysis involved the application of three distinct extraction techniques, namely the pressing method, ultrasonic-assisted extraction method, and Soxhlet extraction method. The pressing method was applied after the drying of kernels for 10 to 50 min and then the oil was obtained via cold pressing. The ultrasonication procedure employed petroleum ether as a solvent and the power was set at 240 W for a duration of 50 min, at 80 °C and a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:7. The Sohxlet extraction also utilized petroleum ether as a solvent and it was carried out for 3 h. The validation of the optimal extraction conditions were additionally conducted using GC-MS, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and SEM. The AKO was found to contain palmitic acid and stearic acid as its primary fatty acids. Additionally, the combined proportion of cis-oleic acid and cis-linolenic acid accounted for a significant portion, totaling 93% of the composition of the oil. The highest yield was observed for the AKO obtained through Soxhlet extraction. Nevertheless, the Soxhlet method exhibited certain limitations, including elevated energy consumption, protracted extraction duration, and suboptimal efficiency. Subsequently, the ultrasonic-assisted extraction method was subjected to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis, which reaffirmed the presence of numerous unsaturated fatty acids in the AKO.

2.3. Apricot Kernel Shell

Demiral and Kul [47] focused on investigating the primary characteristics and quantities of liquid and solid products resulting from the pyrolysis process of apricot kernel shell. The experiments were conducted under controlled conditions in a nonmoving environment, utilizing heating rates of 10 °C/min and 50 °C/min. The pyrolysis temperatures ranged from 400 °C to 550 °C, and the flow rates of the sweep gas (nitrogen) varied between 50 and 200 cm3/min. The highest recorded yields of bio-oil and char were 26.3% (at a temperature of 500 °C) and 35.2% (at a temperature of 400 °C), respectively. The optimal heating rate was 50 °C/min and the nitrogen flow rate was 150 cm3/min. Char yield was maximized when temperatures and heating rates were kept to low levels. Thermal treatment resulted in a minor alteration in the morphology of the charred apricot kernel shell; the formation of new craters on the surface contributed to the expansion of the surface area. It has been observed that the liquid products exhibited potential utility as liquid fuels, while the solid product demonstrated favorable characteristics for adsorption applications, primarily attributable to its notable surface area.
The principal aim of the investigation conducted by Hrichi et al. [48] was to offer an all-encompassing examination of the lipid and polyphenolic makeup of a range of extracts, utilizing solvents including ethanol, dichloromethane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate. The present investigation was carried out utilizing extraction techniques at elevated temperatures, in conjunction with GC and HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry. In all extracts, a comprehensive analysis revealed the presence of six diacylglycerols and eighteen triacylglycerols. The prevailing constituents were identified as dioleoyl-linolein, triolein, and dilinoleyl-olein, with varying percentages ranging from 19.0 to 32.8%, 20.3 to 23.6%, and 12.1 to 20.1%, respectively. In greater elaboration, the utilization of ethyl acetate, a solvent with medium polarity, resulted in the most pronounced signal for all peaks. Subsequently, chloroform and dichloromethane, solvents with medium polarity, yielded lower signals. Conversely, the employment of ethanol, a polar solvent, exhibited the least efficiency in extraction. The signal of ethanol was found to be significantly diminished for the most saturated triacylglycerols, whereas dichloromethane exhibited the lowest proportions of diacylglycerols. In accordance with the findings, the analysis of the complete fatty acid composition indicated that the dichloromethane extract exhibited the lowest proportion of linoleic acid (C18:2n6) while containing the highest concentration (exceeding 60%) of oleic acid (C18:1n9). The ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts contained a higher concentration of polyphenolic compounds, including coumarin derivatives and amygdalin, which have demonstrated pharmacological properties such as antitumor, anticoagulant, and anti-inflammatory effects.
Manić et al. [49] studied the correlation between the slow pyrolysis mechanism of apricot kernel shell biomass and the influence of its principal components, specifically lignin, hemicelluloses, and cellulose, and the pyrolysis properties were evaluated via nonisothermal simultaneous thermal analysis. A nonisothermal reaction occurs when the temperature of the solvent is reduced to a level below its boiling point. Isothermal reactions, on the other hand, ensure that the temperature remains constant across the entire system. The feasibility of utilizing the four-step (parallel) reaction model to analyze the gradual pyrolysis process has been assessed in the context of the semi-global model. The present model explicitly disregards the evaluation of robust interactions among the different biomass constituents, which were referred to as pseudo-components. The validation of the model’s valorization was accomplished via process optimization. The pyrolysis rate curves of apricot kernel shells, which were influenced by different heating rates, were effectively separated into distinct decomposition rate curves. In addition to the pyrolysis of hemicelluloses and cellulose, the model presented in this study differentiated between primary and secondary lignin reactions. These reactions contributed to the release of gaseous products, primarily carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), as well as the formation of char in the solid residue, resulting in an increased yield of biochar.
The research article by Hekimoğlu et al. [50] introduced a novel composite material that exhibited improved impermeability and enhanced properties compared to the natural ones. They applied a eutectic mixture of lauric acid and capric acid, to a ratio of 36:64, into the framework of activated carbon derived from apricot kernel shells. The activated carbon derived from apricot kernel shells combined with artificially produced phase change materials was then integrated in various ratios into a cement-pumice-based mortar. The goal of this project was to create energy-efficient building materials with the specific goal of improving building thermal performance. Experiments were used to evaluate the composite phase change of the material’s morphological, physical, thermal stability, mechanical strength, thermal energy storage, and solar thermoregulation properties. Compressive strength values of cement-pumice-based mortar samples with thermal energy storage capability denoted as thermal energy storage cement-pumice-based mortar samples, were determined to be 6.8, 4.3, and 2.1 MPa for samples 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The thermal regulation performances should be taken into consideration when accepting the relatively lower mechanical strength values. The observed porosity of sample 3 was approximately 26%, with water adsorption measuring around 24%. The FT-IR analysis yielded evidence supporting the notion that there was a high degree of chemical compatibility between activated carbon derived from apricot kernel shells and phase change materials. The differential scanning calorimetry analysis revealed that the activated carbon derived from apricot kernel shells/phase change materials composite exhibited a melting temperature of 21.58 °C and a latent heat capacity of 126.8 J/g. These values fell within the range of 18.93 to 20.51 °C and 10.55 to 30.32 J/g, respectively, for the thermal energy storage composite phase change materials. The thermogravimetric analysis findings revealed that the operational temperature of the activated carbon derived from apricot kernel shells/phase change materials composite was significantly below the threshold temperature at which thermal degradation occurs. The solar thermoregulation performance test results indicated that the constructed thermal energy storage and cooling phase change material provided significant benefits through cooling during the day and heating during the night. The proposed activated carbon derived from apricot kernel shells/phase change materials composite -integrated cement-pumice based mortar’s combination of favorable properties makes it a highly promising material for innovative thermal energy storage applications in construction elements. Below in Table 1, the results of the research performed on apricot kernels are summarized.
Table 1. Apricot kernel and its applications.
By-Product Application Type of Solvent Results Ref.
Kernel Preparation of a suspension of AK milk – Primary acids: palmitic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid, low amygdalin concentration on 250 mL milk [32]
Kernel Oil extraction One-pot protease in aqueous medium ~47% protein yield
179 mg/g asparagine & aspartic acid
172 mg/g glycine & glutamine
86 mg/g phenylalanine & tyrosine
70 mg/g alanine
Oleic acid > 25% & linoleic acid ~40%		 [34]
Kernel Polyphenol extraction, DES, and PEF utilization to improve extraction yield Glycerol:choline chloride 2:1 (w/w) (DES)
PEF treatment: 1 kV/cm, 10 μs pulse duration & 1000 μs pulse period		 PEF prior to extraction: 88% TPC 1 increase
DES: 70% TPC increase
PEF and DES: 173% TPC increase		 [35]
Kernel Oil extraction, analysis, and antioxidant properties Hexane solvent Oleic acid and palmitoleic acid in abundance, volatile compounds 2-methyl propanal, benzaldehyde, and benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde in essential oil, antioxidant activity decreased through time (TPC ~3%, TFC 2 ~18.7%, FRAP ~4.5%, DPPH ~5.2%) [37]
Kernel and pulp Compounds quantification and antioxidant properties Methylene, petroleum ether, and acetate, 1:1:1 (v/v/v) γ-Tocopherol main compound,
3.51 mg of carotenoids/100 g pulp
Antioxidant activity pulp 0.51 μM TEAC 3/g FW and
kernel 0.05 μM TEAC/g FW		 [38]
Kernel and kernel oil Determination of principal characteristics of the fruit – Fruit weight: 8–15 g
Stone recovery 12.7–22.2%
Stone weight: 1.78–1.92 g
Kernel oil recovery: 30.7–33.7%
Vitamin E: 72–107 mg/100 g		 [40]
Kernel oil In vivo potential cardioprotective effects on myocardial IR – Significant cardioprotective properties, a potential dietary supplement [42]
Kernel oil Gastroprotective properties – Anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and antiapoptotic properties [43]
Kernel oil Fatty acid, tocopherol, and amygdalin levels – 5.93% Palmitic acid, 57.33% oleic acid, and 33.81% linoleic acid, 0.20 mg/g amygdalin [44]
Kernel oil Chemical and biological characterization n-hexane Iodine value 99.2 g of I2/100 g of oil, saponification value 189 mg KOH/g oil, peroxide value 1.40 meq O2/kg, 70.70% oleic acid, 22.41% linoleic acid, 3.14% palmitic acid, 1.40% stearic acid, 0.90% linolenic acid, and 0.70% palmitoleic acid, FRAP value 1.07–1.38 mM Fe2+/L, TPC 0.85–1.22 mM GAE 4/L and β-carotene content 42.3–66.8 μg/g [45]
Kernel oil Comparative analysis of AKO Ultrasonication & Sohxlet applied petroleum ether solvent Soxhlet was a more effective technique [46]
Apricot kernel shell Investigation of primary characteristics and quantities of liquid and solid products from pyrolysis – Bio-oil yield 26.3% at 500 °C and 150 cm3/min flow rate [47]
Kernel extracts Analysis of the fatty acid, lipid, and polyphenolic composition Dichloromethane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, ethanol 19.0–32.8% dilinoleyl-olein, 20.3–23.6% dioleoyl-linolein, 12.1–20.1% triolein, ethyl acetate and ethanol had higher TPCs [48]
Kernel oil Correlation between slow pyrolysis mechanism and its primary constituents – An increased yield of biochar when CO and CO2 were released [49]
Kernel shell Novel material with enhanced properties Mixture of lauric acid and capric acid to a ratio of 36:64 Melting temperature of 21.58 °C and a latent heat capacity of 126.8 J/g [50]
Kernel shell Green synthesis of Pd-nanoparticles – High reduction of organic dyes, multiple recoveries and reusable material, catalytic activity [51]
Kernel oil Impact of various roasting temperatures – Peroxide values 0.46–0.82 meq/kg, acid values 0.60–1.40 mg KOH/g, phenol content 54.1–71.5 μg GAE/g, 53 volatile compounds [52]
1 Total polyphenol content; 2 Total flavonoid content; 3 Trolox equivalent activity capacity; 4 Gallic acid equivalents.

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Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Ioannis Makrygiannis
,
Vassilis Athanasiadis
,
Theodoros Chatzimitakos
,
Martha Mantiniotou
,
Eleni Bozinou
,
Stavros I. Lalas
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Update Date: 30 Jan 2024
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