Reusing Agricultural Residues as Organic Soil Amendments

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1		Jose Navarro Pedreño	--	2237	2024-01-11 04:14:54	\|
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su16010158

Agricultural residues are produced in large quantities and their management is an issue all over the world. Many of these residues consist of plant materials in different degrees of transformation, so returning them back to soil is a management option that closes loops in a circular economy context.

soil health organic residue management composting soil management soil organic carbon sequestration

1. Introduction

The production and processing of food are essential activities in all societies. Agriculture, animal husbandry and the agro-industry, which conserves, transforms and processes agricultural products, are among the largest economic sectors, and are basic for the development of agriculture-based economy and are strategic for all countries ^[1]. These sectors are also the source of environmental impacts and a large amount and diversity of related organic residues. Agricultural residues are defined as unwanted waste produced in various agricultural operations. They comprise manure and similar waste from farms, slaughterhouses and poultry houses; harvest waste; fertilizer run-off; salt and silt drained from fields; or pesticides. Most of these materials are made up of organic matter: plant residues from crops, pruning waste, cattle droppings, fruits and vegetables, soilless substrates, wood and pallets, etc. Organic agricultural residues represent an important fraction of all waste produced by human activities. In addition, approximately one-third of all food produced for human consumption in the world is lost or wasted ^[2].

Regulations in many countries, in particular in the European Union, establish that these organic residues need to be managed and/or treated in a convenient way ^[3]. However, moving one step further is necessary, as the current food production economic models are predominantly linear and unsustainable and rely heavily on scarce and/or finite resources. Increasing the food demand of growing populations calls for sustainable intensification to reduce the environmental impact of food production. The waste hierarchy promotes prevention of waste production, followed by reuse and recycling pathways. Therefore, finding options for recycling these organic residues at a large scale without harmful environmental effects and with low technology are needed.

A basic principle of circular economy is that organic residues should be re-used or upcycled to materials, and only if this is not possible, should they be considered for energy generation. A further important aspect is that the nutrients and organic matter contained in organic residues should be valorized and used as soil amendments, instead of being wasted, thus contributing to material circularity, soil fertility and improved soil health ^[4]. The concept of organic recycling and closing nutrients loops in sustainable organic agriculture and waste processing is summarized in Figure 1. The conversion of agro-industrial organic residues to organic amendments for resource utilization and to recover nutrients is key for eco-friendly and sustainable agricultural and food production. Such a solution contributes to closing C, N, and P cycles in organic agricultural residue management and agricultural practices.

Figure 1. Organic recycling and closing nutrients loops in sustainable organic agriculture and waste processing.

The key components of the system are represented by rectangles: organic materials, agriculture practices, waste processing, and nutrient cycles. The arrows indicate the flow of materials and processes within the system. The organic materials supply is directed towards agriculture practices to provide nutrients for the crops. Additionally, the organic waste generated from the organic materials is sent to waste processing to be converted into nutrient-rich compost. The agriculture practices and waste processing components are connected to nutrient cycles to ensure the recycling of nutrients. Nutrients from the agriculture practices are recycled back to the system through the nutrient cycles, while the waste processing component receives nutrient-rich compost from the nutrient cycles. This diagram visualizes how organic recycling and nutrient loops operate in sustainable agriculture and waste processing.

By using biotechnological interventions, numerous value-added and by-products can be obtained from agro-industrial organic residues (Figure 2), including organic fertilizers in the form of manure, compost, biodegradable plastics, biofuel and bioproducts ^[5]. The application of advanced biological and thermochemical methods, such as anaerobic digestion, composting and biocharring, in organic residue treatment can be a proper solution to obtain safe and stable soil amendments. Such processing reduces nutrients leaching and odors and results in the prolonged release of micro and macronutrients. The whole system functions using sustainable organic agriculture and green residue processing strategies. Thus, putting extra effort on recycling organic residues as soil amendments with the double objective of improving soil health and closing matter circles can only be positive.

Figure 2. Biotechnological interventions for waste processing as soil amendments.

2. Reuse as Soil Amendments

2.1. Direct Application to Soil

Some organic waste can be used directly as amendments in agricultural soils, especially animal manure; crop residue, such as cereal straw; and pruning residue, among others. For instance, vines are traditionally incorporated into vineyard soils in Spain. Manure, which is a collective term for excretions of different animal species in combination with straw and other plant materials but also livestock feed residues, improves soil properties through increased organic carbon and nutrients in soils. However, organic matter in manure may be quickly degraded because of its low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio ^[6]. Similarly, returning straw to the soil takes advantage of the large contents of organic carbon to improve soil physical and chemical properties, for instance porosity and bulk density ^[7], benefitting the growth of crops, but it may also have negative effects caused by organic acids production during decomposition ^[8]. In addition, the high C/N ratio hinders soil organic matter formation due to the lack of adequate nutrient supply. The same reason might lead to limited nutrient supply to plants when straw is applied alone to soils.

2.2. Previous Transformations

While the benefits of direct application of organic waste are many, not all should be applied directly to soil. In some cases, there are potential risks associated with their composition and transformation processes in soils, such as the leaching of readily available nutrients, especially nitrogen in form of nitrate, into the groundwater ^[9]. Other materials such as manure can also benefit from previous transformation processes to be converted into amendments better suited for soil application, even if their direct application is feasible.

2.2.1. Compost

Composting is a process of biological decomposition and the stabilization of organic matter under aerobic conditions through the action of diverse microorganisms. Although composting is a method that has been used since ancient times for waste transformation and soil fertilization, scientific studies about its fundamentals have only begun to be published in the past four decades. Several methods and systems for composting have been developed, varying in scale and purpose from home-made systems in individual households, over medium-sized, on-site reactors operated by farmers, to large, high-tech systems used by professional producers. The fundamental physical, chemical and biological and aspects of composting are always the same despite different techniques, and knowledge about the interactions and dependence of factors and competing forces within a composting matrix have recently been investigated. These include the suitability of different feedstocks and amendments as well as their adequate composition, porosity and free air space, moisture control, energy balance as well as substrate degradability, decomposition and stabilization ^[10]^[11]. This process has three typical phases. The first one is a moderate-temperature (mesophilic) phase and after a few days, a high temperature of over 60 °C is reached (thermophilic phase). This phase is very important to eliminate pathogenic bacteria and seeds. Finally, the last phase is the maturation stage, leading to the final stabilized organic matter.

Composting allows us to stabilize organic residues before application to soil avoiding crop damage that can come from highly biodegradable fresh residues, but it also allows to blend materials that are not easily composted alone. Animal manure is typically composted to improve its properties ^[12], as well as plant-derived materials such as pruning residues ^[13], cereal crop residue ^[14], grape marc and other winery waste ^[15]^[16], olive pomace ^[17] or fruit and vegetable waste ^[18]. These organic residues are also commonly treated by co-composting processes using more than one feedstock (Table 1). The final product of this biological process is compost, a stabilized substrate rich in organic matter, free of pathogens and plant seeds, which is suitable to be added to the soil as an organic fertilizer. Composted organic residues are typically used in agriculture and horticulture, as well as to produce topsoil for landscaping or land restoration activities, including phytoremediation ^[19].

A similar technique is vermicomposting, which is a decomposition process involving microorganisms and earthworms. A disadvantage of vermicomposting is that it does not reach high temperatures ^[20], lacking the proper elimination of pathogens and seeds. Therefore, vermicomposting should not be used alone. Instead, vermicomposting and traditional composting should be combined, beginning with a partial pre-composting followed by a finishing stage of vermicomposting ^[21].

Table 1. Examples of co-composting processes of commonly used agro-industrial organic residues.

Main Feedstock Category	Composting Process	Feedstock Used for Composting Process	Ratio (v/v)	Effects	Reference
Manure	Aerobic reactors	Chicken manure + peanut straw + biochar	2.5:1:0.1	Increased temperature of the process after biochar application	^[22]
	Piles	Cattle manure + maize straw	5:1	Amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism were key metabolism pathways	^[23]
	Aerobic reactors	Pig manure + wheat straw (+ bean dregs and biochar)	2:1	Bean dregs and biochar promote the decomposition and humification of compost	^[24]
	Piles	Straw, draff, horse manure, maize silage, loam, and stone powder + biochar co-composting	1:5:1:5:0.02:1	Biochar compost performed better than compost alone or synthetic fertilizer	^[25]
	Aerobic reactors + preheating	Swine manure + food waste + corn stalk co-composting	2:2:0.5	Initially elevated temperature restricted the rebounding of pathogenic bacteria	^[26]
	Piles	Cow manure + sawdust	1:1	Cow manure co-composting reduced pathogenic microbes	^[27]
	Aerobic reactors	Kitchen waste + pig manure + cornstalks	2.5:2.5:1	Germination index of the inoculated thermophilic compost was higher	^[28]
Sewage sludge	Aerobic reactors	Rural sewage sludge and food waste co-composting	2:0.5	Agricultural value of sewage sludge can be enhanced through co-composting	^[29]
	Aerobic reactors	Sewage sludge + centrate		Improves yield and rice protein and mineral content; high nutrient content	^[30]
	Aerobic reactors	Sewage sludge from food industry + biochar vermiremediation	1:0.1	In vermicomposting of sewage sludge bulking materials can be replaced with biochar	^[25]
	Aerobic reactor	Sewage sludge + straw (1 cm) + aerobic microorganism agent + biochar	4:1	Reduction of gas emissions after bacteria and biochar application	^[31]
Green waste/Food waste/other organic waste or biomass	Windrow composting	Vegetable biomass	-	Compost based on “heavy” materials the most sustainable	^[32]
	Windrow composting	Green waste + food waste	1:1	Compost designed for tropical horticultural crops	^[33]
	In-vessel	Food waste	-	Can reduce GHG emissions and eutrophication when compared to	^[34]
	Open-air static pile	Food waste + leaves	4:1	Substituting chemical fertilizers with organic compost is a viable option	^[35]

2.2.2. Biochar

Charred organic material has been added to soil in ancient agricultural systems all over the world ^[36], in addition to the Terra Preta phenomenon ^[37], precedents of the current use of biochar as soil amendment. Agro-industrial residues employed preferentially for biochar production are wood, sawdust and crop residues, including straw and woody materials such as pruning residues. Biochar is produced by the thermal treatment (>400 °C) of organic materials, e.g., by pyrolysis or gasification under oxygen-deficient conditions. Different technologies are available for biochar production: these include charcoal stacks, the traditional way of converting wood to charcoal ^[38]; rotary kilns, which are cylindrical-shaped pyrolizers, externally heated, where biomass is moving continually via rotating spirals. The Pyreg process is a patented pyrolysis characterized by biomass allothermic gasification. Wood gasifiers produce biochar in a fixed-bed, downdraft, open core, compact gasifier with the main purpose of electricity production; they are normally fed with pure and clean wood rather than on agricultural organic residues. Preferred technologies are pyrolisis systems and gasification because of emissions free of toxic compounds and the beneficial use of released energy, e.g., for electricity production or heating purposes ^[38].

Biochar has been proven to increase soil organic carbon, nutrient availability, and water holding capacity over a long time period and to sequester carbon ^[39]^[40]. Biochar affects crops and soils differently ^[38], and its addition to soil should be additionally considered as a strategy to mitigate the negative effects of climate change ^[40]^[41].

2.2.3. Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a biological process in which organic matter is decomposed and stabilized in the absence of oxygen. As a result of the decomposition under anerobic conditions, a gas mixture known as biogas is produced, containing essentially methane (50–75%) and carbon dioxide (30–40%), which can be used to generate heat or electricity as a substitute for fossil fuels ^[42]. Therefore, anaerobic digestion allows the conversion of organic waste into a renewable source of energy. This technology is very useful for those agricultural waste with high moisture, and in particular for liquid manure.

In addition to biogas, the anaerobic digestion of agricultural waste also products digestate, a by-product that can be used as a soil amendment ^[43]. However, digestate should undergo a composting/stabilization stage before application to soil for easier management and an efficient agronomic use as fertilizer ^[44], in order to reduce odors, ammonia emission and risk of nutrient leaching. Digestate has been applied to soil proving good fertilizer value, increasing soil organic carbon and stimulating soil biological activity ^[45]^[46].

Finally, advantages and disadvantages of the options presented for organic waste use on soil are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Summary of advantages and advantages of options for the utilization of agro-industrial organic residues.

	Advantages	Disadvantages
Direct application	- Low cost - Low technology	- Not suitable for all waste - Nuisances for application - Pollution risk
Composting	- Waste volume reduction - Low cost - Hygienization - Easy to manipulate - Applicable to a wide range of waste	- Need of space and time for treatment - Gas emissions
Biocharring	- Fast process - Waste volume reduction - Hygienization - Easy to manipulate	- High level of technology - High cost - Gas emissions
Anaerobic digestion	- Obtention of energy from biogas	- High level of technology - Odors, ammonia emissions

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