Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Theodoros Varzakas
 -- 2158 2023-12-18 07:38:21 |
2 format correct
Catherine Yang
Meta information modification 2158 2023-12-18 08:54:04 | |
3 none
Maria Antoniadou
Meta information modification 2158 2023-12-18 10:10:09 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?
Send video materials Upload full video

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Dimopoulou, M.; Antoniadou, M.; Amargianitakis, M.; Gortzi, O.; Androutsos, O.; Varzakas, T. Nutritional Factors Associated with Dental Caries. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/52850 (accessed on 27 July 2024).
Dimopoulou M, Antoniadou M, Amargianitakis M, Gortzi O, Androutsos O, Varzakas T. Nutritional Factors Associated with Dental Caries. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/52850. Accessed July 27, 2024.
Dimopoulou, Maria, Maria Antoniadou, Markos Amargianitakis, Olga Gortzi, Odysseas Androutsos, Theodoros Varzakas. "Nutritional Factors Associated with Dental Caries" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/52850 (accessed July 27, 2024).
Dimopoulou, M., Antoniadou, M., Amargianitakis, M., Gortzi, O., Androutsos, O., & Varzakas, T. (2023, December 18). Nutritional Factors Associated with Dental Caries. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/52850
Dimopoulou, Maria, et al. "Nutritional Factors Associated with Dental Caries." Encyclopedia. Web. 18 December, 2023.
Nutritional Factors Associated with Dental Caries
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/app132413254

Nutrition and dietetic care span various life stages, addressing nutritional needs and exploring factors that shape dietary habits. Globally, an alarming disproportion in food resource distribution, coupled with substandard nutritional intake, underscores profound implications for oral health. 

diet dental caries oral health dentists dentistry sustainability

1. Introduction

The prevalence of dental caries and periodontitis, acknowledged as the most pervasive oral diseases, has necessitated a reevaluation of societal objectives concerning oral health [1]. This reassessment is prominently centered on primary dental care and has been effectively instituted in multiple nations, yielding notable achievements [2][3]. The adoption of this novel approach by various governments stems from the realization that despite considerable advancements in scientific knowledge and technology in recent years, a commensurate enhancement in oral health has not materialized [4]. Extensive and protracted investigations have consistently established a correlation between periodontal diseases, tooth decay, and the presence of dental plaque, the etiological factors of which are both specific and preventable [5][6]. Notably, restorative dentistry remains financially prohibitive for significant segments of the population in many countries, primarily being accessible to the more affluent socioeconomic strata [7]. Concurrently, the financial implications of dental care are large, consuming over 15% of overall health expenditure. This underscores an impending fiscal challenge for public health systems as the trajectory of escalating costs associated with dental care appears unsustainable [8].
This circumstance has led to the development of a novel strategic approach to address oral diseases, compelling the World Health Organization (WHO) to delineate specific objectives for oral health in 2023 [1]. The initial objective stipulates that by 2030, 50% of children aged 5–6 years should exhibit a state of dental cavity absence, commencing from the baseline year of 2020. The second goal pertains to a target caries index of 3- to 12-year-olds [9]. The third objective aims at the preservation of complete dentition in 85% of 18-year-olds [1]. Additionally, for adults aged 35–45 years, a consequential ambition is the achievement of a 50% reduction in the incidence of extractions relative to historical levels. Concurrently, there is a pressing need for the establishment and integration of sustained data collection systems within health frameworks specifically designed to monitor and assess the evolving landscape of oral health [10].

2. Effects of Poor Nutrition on Oral Health and Dental Caries

Nutrition exerts a profound impact on oral health, with malnutrition notably exacerbating periodontal and oral infectious diseases during this phase [11]. However, the most prominent influence of nutrition on dental health manifests through the local effects of the diet within the oral cavity, specifically concerning the development of dental caries and enamel erosion [12]. A suboptimal diet can significantly contribute to the onset of tooth decay and gum disease [11][13]. Consumption of foods rich in starch, sugars, and carbohydrates can elevate plaque acid levels, precipitating cariogenic attacks.
Beyond dental caries, nutritional factors may also play a role in the development of various dental and oral mucosal pathologies [14]. Protein deficiencies, for instance, may be associated with delayed tooth eruption and salivary gland dysfunction. Additionally, a deficiency in vitamin A may lead to impaired epithelial tissue development, tooth formation, and enamel hypoplasia, thereby laying the groundwork for the prevalence of caries [15]. Vitamin C is also a pivotal player in gingival well-being and is essential for collagen production, a protein crucial in maintaining gum integrity. A dietary regimen rich in vitamin C is therefore integral in averting gum disease [16]. Calcium, another essential mineral, assumes responsibility for fortifying teeth and bones, fostering enamel strength, and mitigating the risk of tooth decay. Calcium deficiency not only weakens tooth enamel but also precipitates other oral health issues, including periodontal disease and tooth loss. Nutrient inadequacies, especially those pivotal to bone health, increase the susceptibility to bone loss and subsequent osteoporosis. The intricate process of bone formation demands a consistent supply of nutrients, such as calcium, protein, magnesium, phosphorus, vitamin D, potassium, and fluoride [17][18].
Concurrently, the role of natural and free sugars, encompassing sucrose, glucose, and fructose, assumes prominence as primary contributors to caries development. Sucrose, a disaccharide comprising glucose and fructose, stands out for its heightened cariogenic potential [19]. An array of nutrients, including calcium, vitamin D, protein, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium, actively contribute to bone and hard dental tissues health. A healthy and balanced diet, characterized by the inclusion of fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, and lean proteins, inherently provides the essential nutrients indispensable for maintaining robust and functional bones and teeth [12][18].
Moreover, phosphorus has emerged as a critical element in caries inhibition, acting as a natural protector and remineralizer of tooth enamel, while zinc, an essential mineral, plays a vital role in gum health. A diminished uptake of zinc may escalate the risk of periodontal disease and subsequent tooth loss [20].
Thus, persistent poor dietary quality is linked to the emergence of oral health issues later in life. Notably, oral health problems, such as tooth loss, periodontal disease, and dry mouth, are pervasive conditions among older individuals (≥65 years) and exert a substantial impact on both oral and general health [15][18][19].
The intricate interplay of micronutrients in dental caries, encompassing their nutritional sources and deficiency effects, is systematically presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Micronutrients and their role, nutrition source, deficiency effect, and supplements.
Micronutrient Dental Effect Nutrition Source Deficiency Supplements
Vitamin A
[15][21][22][23]		 Facilitates the stimulation of saliva production, thereby promoting the removal of acids and food particles from teeth, concurrently neutralizing acid and providing protection against dental decay. Leafy green vegetables (kale, spinach, and broccoli), orange and yellow vegetables (carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, and others), tomatoes, red bell pepper, cantaloupe, mango, beef liver, fish oil, milk, and eggs. Elevated susceptibility to caries was observed in instances of vitamin A deficiency. A proposed mechanism for this vulnerability postulates that it may be attributed to an increase in enamel solubility. Deficiency in vitamin A is common in children and pregnant women. Supplements may be suggested in this case.
Vitamin B6
[22][24]		 Has emerged as a promising contender in safeguarding against dental caries. Beef liver, tuna, salmon, fortified cereals, chickpeas, poultry, and some vegetables and fruits The deficiency of vitamin B6 can have implications for dental integrity, disrupting essential processes like enamel formation and increasing the risk of caries development. Only recommended in case of deficiency of vitamin B6.
Vitamin K
[22][24]		 Has surfaced as a noteworthy prospect for protecting against dental caries. Spinach, broccoli, iceberg lettuce, and fats and oils Insufficient levels of vitamin K may compromise dental health by impeding optimal mineralization processes, potentially contributing to enamel hypoplasia and increasing the susceptibility to caries formation. Only recommended if there is a deficiency of vitamin K.
Vitamin C
[16][22]		 Plays a crucial role in promoting the health of the gingiva and facilitating the healing process. Citrus (orange, kiwi, lemon, and grapefruit), bell peppers, tomatoes, cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and cauliflower), and white potatoes Depletion in humans leads to gingival bleeding, regardless of oral hygiene. Only recommended if there is deficiency of vitamin C.
Vitamin D
[22][24][25]		 Activates a pivotal role in the formation of enamel and dentin during the tooth development process due to its interaction with receptors in ameloblasts and odontoblasts. Dark-green leafed vegetables, cheese, milk, cod-liver oil, oyster mushrooms, eggs, and certain species of wild salmon The insufficiency of vitamin D can lead to enamel hypoplasia, a noteworthy factor contributing to early childhood caries. For strict vegans (those avoiding milk) and elderly, vitamin D supplements could be taken in combination with minerals as either vitamin D alone or minerals alone may not provide systemic benefits.
Calcium
[22][23][25]		 Engages actively in the protection and reconstruction of tooth enamel. Cheese, milk, plain yogurt, calcium-fortified tofu, leafy greens, and almonds Enamel hypoplasia, salivary glandular hypofunction, and alterations in saliva composition may represent mechanisms through which an association with caries is established. Calcium is the most important supplement with vitamin D for elderly and vegetarians for dental health. It may also be recommended for pregnant women and children when they do not consume dairy products daily.
Phosphorus
[22][25][26]		 The equilibrium between enamel demineralization and remineralization is actively influenced by the levels of calcium and phosphorus ions in saliva, and their deficiency markedly alters the morphology of the tooth. Protein-rich foods like meat, poultry, fish, milk, and eggs Incorporating amorphous calcium phosphate nanoparticles into orthodontic cement can prevent the occurrence of white spot lesions during orthodontic treatments as these nanoparticles possess the capability to inhibit caries and promote the remineralization of lesions. Supplementation may be essential in deficiency.
Magnesium
[22][26]		 Demonstrates noteworthy antibacterial and biofilm activity against cariogenic bacteria. Green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains Has the potential to diminish the progression and development of dental caries by releasing magnesium ions. Supplementation may be essential in deficiency.
Zinc
[22][26]		 Exhibits the capacity to inhibit S. mutans, diminish plaque formation, and promote remineralization. Meet, fish, and seafood Failed to foster antimicrobial activity. Supplementation may be essential in deficiency.

3. Current Food Technology and Its Influence in the Formation of Caries

The prevailing trend in the food and beverage industry is to meticulously design products to maximize their appeal to consumers. Sugar-sweetened beverages, exemplified by soft drinks, fruit juices, chocolate milk, and energy drinks, epitomize products strategically crafted for consumer allure. The heightened attractiveness of these beverages is primarily attributed to their elevated carbohydrate content, which, by elevating blood glucose levels, induces a pleasurable mood [27]. Furthermore, the caffeine present in many beverages serves to stimulate the trigeminal nerve in the brain, acting synergistically with carbonic acid [28]. Despite the euphoric symptoms associated with their consumption, it is imperative to acknowledge that such drinks may precipitate bone loss, likely attributable to their high caffeine and phosphorus content [27][29]. A similar concern arises with “energy drinks”, wherein the carbonate they contain poses a substantial risk, though the precise mechanism through which they exert their detrimental effects remains incompletely elucidated [30].
Contemporarily, there is a discernible trend among younger demographics to substitute traditional beverages, such as water, milk, and juice, with these enticing alternatives [27][31]. Encouragingly, tea, a beverage commonly consumed by young adults, possesses a notable concentration of polyphenols, which contribute significantly to the prevention of dental caries [32][33][34]. Routine consumption of energy drinks is characterized by elevated sugar content and extreme acidity. With a pH range falling between 2.4 and 3.5, these beverages harbor high concentrations of carbonic acid, phosphoric acid, malic acid, and citric acid [35]. Both the sugars and acids in these drinks significantly contribute to the development of dental caries. Prolonged and frequent consumption of energy drinks has been associated with the induction of dental caries, substantiated by established positive correlations between caries and the intake of soft drinks [19][36][37].
The acidity of these beverages plays a dual role in the development of dental caries. Firstly, it augments the acidic pH initiated by cariogenic attacks, thereby intensifying the deleterious impact of the carious process [35]. Secondly, it imposes selective pressure that fosters the proliferation of a more acidogenic and aciduric microbiota in the oral cavity, creating conditions conducive to cariogenic processes [38]. The frequency of consumption of such beverages directly correlates with the magnitude of their detrimental effects on dental health.
The ascendancy of green marketing in the food industry over recent years has yielded positive nutritional shifts, particularly for infants and young children. The adoption of green chemical technology has enhanced the bioavailability of products with high nutrient value, facilitating the absorption of nutrients that might otherwise be overlooked [39]. An illustrative instance is the enriched pasta with vegetables, designed to facilitate children in meeting daily vegetable recommendations [40]. Such applications bear the potential to confer significant benefits to oral health, particularly when increased bioavailability of essential nutrients like magnesium and calcium through dietary means is anticipated to exert a positive influence on oral health and caries prevention [26].
Despite the commendable strides in formulating food products for children aged 4–7 and 7–10 years, with sugar content generally limited to less than 5 or 6 teaspoons, overconsumption remains a pertinent concern associated with both obesity and dental caries [41]. The crux of fostering proper infant growth lies in ensuring the right balance of essential and supplemented nutrients, either through breastfeeding or alternative nutrition formulas [42]. Notably, formula manufacturers have already heeded recommendations by reducing sugar content and adhering to guidelines for carbohydrate and corn syrup restrictions [43]. The incorporation of fructo-oligosaccharides and galactic-oligosaccharides in infant formula, with specified content limits, underscores their potential impact on dental health given the pivotal role played by calcium and phosphorus [44].
To mitigate the potential misunderstanding of nutrient labels, health professionals advocate for color-coded labeling on the front of food packages. The rationale behind this system is to categorize products as “red” for cautious and infrequent consumption while encouraging the selection of more “green”- and “amber”-labeled products to minimize the risk of caries and enhance overall oral health (Table 2) [45].
Table 2. Color indication on the food label indicating the sugar content per 100 g of product and/or per portion adapted with permission from Ref. [46].
Low (Green) Medium (Amber) High (Red) High Per Portion If More Than 100 g/150 mL (Red)
Sugar in food (per 100 g) 5 g or less Between 5 g and 22.5 g More than 22.5 g 27 g
Sugar in drink (per 100 mL) 2.5 g or less Between 2.5 g and 11.25 g More than 11.25 g 13.5 g

References

  1. World Health Organization (WHO). Global Oral Health Status Report: Towards Universal Health Coverage for Oral Health by 2030; Regional summary of the African Region; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2023.
  2. Fathalla, L.H. Caries Prevention Strategies Practiced In Scandinavia. A literature study. Bachelor’s Thesis, Malmö University, Malmö, Switzerland, 2011.
  3. World Health Organization (WHO). Prevention and Treatment of Dental Caries with Mercury-Free Products and Minimal Intervention: WHO Oral Health Briefing Note Series; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2022.
  4. Chapple, I.L.; Bouchard, P.; Cagetti, M.G.; Campus, G.; Carra, M.C.; Cocco, F.; Nibali, L.; Hujoel, P.; Laine, M.L.; Lingstrom, P.; et al. Interaction of lifestyle, behaviour or systemic diseases with dental caries and periodontal diseases: Consensus report of group 2 of the joint EFP/ORCA workshop on the boundaries between caries and periodontal diseases. J. Clin. Periodontol. 2017, 44, S39–S51.
  5. Marsh, P.D.; Martin, M.V. Plaque-mediated diseases: Dental caries and periodontal diseases. In Marsh and Martin’s Oral Microbiology, 6th ed.; Marsh, P.D., Lewis, M.A.O., Rogers, H., Williams, D.W., Wilson, M., Eds.; Elsevier Ltd.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 112–129. ISBN 978-070-206-106-6.
  6. Hernández, P.; Sánchez, M.C.; Llama-Palacios, A.; Ciudad, M.J.; Collado, L. Strategies to combat caries by maintaining the integrity of biofilm and homeostasis during the rapid phase of supragingival plaque formation. Antibiotics 2022, 11, 880.
  7. Beikler, T.; Flemmig, T.F. Oral biofilm-associated diseases: Trends and implications for quality of life, systemic health and expenditures. Periodontol. 2000 2011, 55, 87–103.
  8. Diamantopoulos, K.; Niakas, D. The Effects of Economic Crisis on the Demand and Supply of the Dental Services in Greece. J. Int. Soc. Prev. Community Dent. 2017, 7, 135–140.
  9. Najihah, L.; Wan Husin, W.Z.; Marhazlinda, J. Multivariable Projections of Caries-Free Prevalence and the Associated Factors from 2019 to 2030 among Schoolchildren Aged 6, 12 and 16-Year-Old in Malaysia. Children 2023, 10, 1125.
  10. World Health Organization. Action Plan for Oral Health in South-East Asia 2022–2030: Towards Universal Health Coverage for Oral Health; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2022.
  11. Chan, A.K.Y.; Tsang, Y.C.; Jiang, C.M.; Leung, K.C.M.; Lo, E.C.M.; Chu, C.H. Diet, Nutrition, and Oral Health in Older Adults: A Review of the Literature. Dent. J. 2023, 11, 222.
  12. Tungare, S.; Paranjpe, A.G. Diet and Nutrition to Prevent Dental Problems; Updated: 10th July, 2023; Tungare, S., Paranjpe, A.G., Eds.; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2023.
  13. Keyes, P.H. Research in dental caries. JADA 1968, 76, 1357–1373.
  14. Holland, C. Obesity, oral health and the role of the dental profession. Brit. Dent. J. 2022, 233, 712–713.
  15. Kotronia, E.; Brown, H.; Papacosta, A.O.; Lennon, L.T.; Weyant, R.J.; Whincup, P.H.; Wannamethee, S.G.; Ramsay, S.E. Poor oral health and the association with diet quality and intake in older people in two studies in the UK and USA. Br. J. Nutr. 2021, 126, 118–130.
  16. Murererehe, J.; Uwitonze, A.M.; Nikuze, P.; Patel, J.; Razzaque, M.S. Beneficial Effects of Vitamin C in Maintaining Optimal Oral Health. Front. Nutr. 2021, 8, 805809.
  17. Moynihan, P.J. The relationship between nutrition and systemic and oral well-being in older people. JADA 2007, 138, 493–497.
  18. Peponis, M.; Antoniadou, M.; Pappa, E.; Rahiotis, C.; Varzakas, T. Vitamin D and Vitamin D Receptor Polymorphisms Relationship to Risk Level of Dental Caries. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 6014.
  19. Chi, D.L.; Scott, J.M. Added sugar and dental caries in children: A scientific update and future steps. Dent. Clin. N. Am. 2019, 63, 17–33.
  20. Tonetti, M.S.; Jepsen, S.; Jin, L.; Otomo-Corgel, J. Impact of the global burden of periodontal diseases on health, nutrition and wellbeing of mankind: A call for global action. J. Clin. Periodontol. 2017, 44, 456–462.
  21. Akram, M.; Munir, N.; Daniyal, M.; Egbuna, C.; Găman, M.-A.; Onyekere, P.F.; Olatunde, A. Vitamins and Minerals: Types, sources and their functions. In Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Bioactive Components, Formulations and Innovations; Egbuna, C., Dable-Tupas, G., Eds.; Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 149–172.
  22. Psoter, W.J.; Reid, B.C.; Katz, R.V. Malnutrition and Dental Caries: A Review of the Literature. Caries Res. 2005, 39, 441–447.
  23. Hujoel, P.P.; Lingström, P. Nutrition, dental caries and periodontal disease: A narrative review. J. Clin. Periodontol. 2017, 44, S79–S84.
  24. Soesilawati, P.; Rezkika, Y.F.; Ayunnisa, N.; Syarifina, M.P.; Soffarina, S.; Laturiuw, I.J.; Pertiwi, P.C. Effectivity of Calcium, Phosphate and Vitamin D in Dental Caries Prevention. DENTA 2023, 17, 67–74.
  25. Nizami, M.Z.I.; Xu, V.W.; Yin, I.X.; Yu, O.Y.; Chu, C.H. Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in Caries Prevention: A Review. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 3446.
  26. Redondo, N.; Gómez-Martínez, S.; Marcos, A. Sensory attributes of soft drinks and their influence on consumers’ preferences. Food Funct. 2014, 5, 1686–1694.
  27. Rozental, J.M. Tension-Type Headache, Chronic Tension-Type Headache, and Other Chronic Headache Types. In Essentials of Pain Medicine and Regional Anesthesia, 4th ed.; Benzon, H.T., Raja, S.N., Molloy, R.E., Liu, S.S., Fishman, S.M., Eds.; Elsevier Ltd.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; pp. 165–168.
  28. Jolly, R. UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund): Global Governance That Works, 1st ed.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2014.
  29. Ehizele, A.O.; Ojehanon, P.I.; Akhionbare, O. Nutrition and oral health. Benin J. Postgrad. Med. 2009, 11, 76–82.
  30. Amargianitakis, M.; Antoniadou, M.; Rahiotis, C.; Varzakas, T. Probiotics, Prebiotics, Synbiotics and Dental Caries. New Perspectives, Suggestions, and Patient Coaching Approach for a Cavity-Free Mouth. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5472.
  31. Ahmed, S.I.; Sudhir, K.M.; Reddy, V.C.S.; Kumar, R.V.S.K.; Srinivasulu, G. Green Tea in the Prevention of Dental Caries A Systematic Review. Int. Arch. BioMed. Clin. Res. 2017, 3, 1–6.
  32. Zhang, R.; Cheng, L.; Zhang, T.; Xu, T.; Li, M.; Yin, W.; Jiang, Q.; Yang, Y.; Hu, T. Brick tea consumption is a risk factor for dental caries and dental fluorosis among 12-year-old Tibetan children in Ganzi. Environ. Geochem. Health 2019, 41, 1405–1417.
  33. Higuchi, T.; Suzuki, N.; Nakaya, S.; Omagari, S.; Yoneda, M.; Hanioka, T.; Hirofuji, T. Effects of Lactobacillus salivarius WB21 combined with green tea catechins on dental caries, periodontitis, and oral malodor. Arch. Oral Biol. 2019, 98, 243–247.
  34. Chowdhury, J.I.; Hu, Y.; Haltas, I.; Balta-Ozkan, N.; Matthew, G., Jr.; Varga, L. Reducing industrial energy demand in the UK: A review of energy efficiency technologies and energy saving potential in selected sectors. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2018, 94, 1153–1178.
  35. Alwaheb, S.A. Dental caries and salivary calcium-phosphate levels among soft drinks factory workers: Exploring the relationship. Int. J. Med. Sci. Dent. Health 2023, 9, 12–15.
  36. Cheng, R.; Yang, H.; Shao, M.Y.; Hu, T.; Zhou, X.D. Dental erosion and severe tooth decay related to soft drinks: A case report and literature review. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B 2009, 10, 395–399.
  37. Vinson, L.A.; Goodlett, A.K.; Huang, R.; Eckert, G.J.; Gregory, R.L. In vitro effects of sports and energy drinks on Streptococcus mutans biofilm formation and metabolic activity. J. Dent. Chi. 2017, 84, 108–114.
  38. Galanakis, C.M. Innovation Strategies in the Food Industry: Tools for Implementation; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2016.
  39. Oliviero, T.; Fogliano, V. Food design strategies to increase vegetable intake: The case of vegetable enriched pasta. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 51, 58–64.
  40. Tortora, P. Global Processes and Local Effects: Food Processing Transnational Corporations in the Developing World. Ph.D. Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK, 2002.
  41. Sharma, R. Nutrition in Infants: Risks and Management. In Nutrition in Infancy; Watson, R.R., Grimble, G., Preedy, V.R., Zibadi, S., Eds.; Humana Totowa: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2013; Volume 1, pp. 17–37.
  42. DiMaggio, D.M.; Du, N.; Scherer, C.; Brodlie, S.; Shabanova, V.; Belamarich, P.; Porto, A.F. Comparison of Imported European and US Infant Formulas: Labeling, Nutrient and Safety Concerns. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2019, 69, 480–486.
  43. Jiang, Y.; Guo, M.Y. Infant formula product regulation. In Human Milk Biochemistry and Infant Formula Manufacturing Technology, 2nd ed.; Guo, M., Ed.; Elsevier. Ltd: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2021; pp. 281–316.
  44. Aceves-Martins, M.; Bates, R.L.; Craig, L.C.A.; Chalmers, N.; Horgan, G.; Boskamp, B.; de Roos, B. Food-Level Analysis to Identify Dietary Choices With the Highest Nutritional Quality and Lowest Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Price. Front. Nutr. 2022, 9, 851826.
  45. Schifferstein, H.N.J.; de Boer, A.; Lemke, M. Conveying information through food packaging: A literature review comparing legislation with consumer perception. J. Funct. Foods 2021, 86, 104734.
  46. World Health Organization (WHO). Carbohydrate Intake for Adults and Children: WHO Guideline, in Carbohydrate Intake for Adults and Children: WHO Guideline; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2023.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Nutrition & Dietetics
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Maria Dimopoulou
,
Maria Antoniadou
,
Markos Amargianitakis
,
Olga Gortzi
,
Odysseas Androutsos
,
Theodoros Varzakas
View Times: 323
Revisions: 3 times (View History)
Update Date: 18 Dec 2023
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Video Production Service
    Feedback