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Abdallah, Y.K.; Estévez, A.T. Seashell-Based Biocomposite by Pleurotus ostreatus Mycelium. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/51333 (accessed on 19 May 2024).
Abdallah YK, Estévez AT. Seashell-Based Biocomposite by Pleurotus ostreatus Mycelium. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/51333. Accessed May 19, 2024.
Abdallah, Yomna K., Alberto T. Estévez. "Seashell-Based Biocomposite by Pleurotus ostreatus Mycelium" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/51333 (accessed May 19, 2024).
Abdallah, Y.K., & Estévez, A.T. (2023, November 09). Seashell-Based Biocomposite by Pleurotus ostreatus Mycelium. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/51333
Abdallah, Yomna K. and Alberto T. Estévez. "Seashell-Based Biocomposite by Pleurotus ostreatus Mycelium." Encyclopedia. Web. 09 November, 2023.
Seashell-Based Biocomposite by Pleurotus ostreatus Mycelium
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/biomimetics8060504

Mycelium biocomposites are eco-friendly, cheap, easy to produce, and have competitive mechanical properties. However, their integration in the built environment as durable and long-lasting materials is not solved yet. Similarly, biocomposites from recycled food waste such as seashells have been gaining increasing interest recently, thanks to their sustainable impact and richness in calcium carbonate and chitin. 

seashell-based biocomposite paste extrusion 3D-printed brick elastic brick mycelium brick

1. Elastic Biodigital Brick: V3 Linear Brick Model

The geometrical design of the biodigital brick linear model V3 has been reported to achieve the best elasticity performance in comparison to the other biodigital and standard clay bricks [1][2]. It has achieved the second-best pre-cracking elasticity under (150 N) and the highest post-cracking elasticity under 200 N, while achieving the second-best compressive strength until 170 N. The current study exploits the formal efficiency of the V3 linear model in developing 3D-printed, seashell-based biocomposite material that is subject for biowelding with mycelium, where the brick’s bioreceptivity will contribute to its material coherence through bio-welding. This proposes the hosted bioactive agent as a binder agent that performs biowelding by its growth.
The aim, thus, was to study the mutual effect of the formal design and bioactive material properties in achieving multi-scale sustainability including controlled material deposition, eco-friendly biomanufacturing and 3D printing, bioreceptivity, food waste recycling, and mycelium biowelding efficiency. This goes beyond literature to test the capacity of mycelium to bind non-agro–based substrates and to penetrate and bind lattice linear forms; not surface-based topologies. This interaction between the mycelium as the bioactive agent and the hosting material–geometry context is intended for testing multiple parameters, including developing a printable biocomposite material from food waste with a high shape fidelity and a lower degradability rate for applications in the built environment; testing the biocompatibility of the biocomposite material with the hosted bioagent; testing the bioreceptive capacity of the V3 elastic biodigital brick geometry for mycelium growth and penetration; and testing the chemical–physical reactions between the fungal culture and the biocomposite host and its effect on the overall morphology and shape fidelity of the brick itself.
In the following section, an overview is presented on the state of the art of utilizing biocomposite materials from different sources and types as sustainable building materials, as well as the mycelium biowelding effect in mycelium-based biocomposite materials. This is followed by the experimental study results and discussion of the developed seashell–mycelium biowelded brick through the SEM and EDX chemical analysis of the developed material reactions and coherency. Finally, a report of the materials and methods is conducted in the current study.

2. Biocomposite Materials: Fiber Based to Platelet Based

Recently, there has been an increasing interest in biocomposites within the construction industry thanks to their multiple benefits. For example, they are developed from renewable resources or recycled materials, in addition to their affordability, biodegradability, and competent physical properties such as light wight. A biocomposite is composed from a matrix and a reinforcement which is usually made of natural fibers. Natural fiber biocomposites have emerged as an environmentally friendly and cost-effective alternative to synthetic fibers. They are advantageous for their low density, resulting in a higher specific tensile strength and stiffness, as well as their lower manufacturing costs and easy production. This enables the wide range of applications of the natural fiber-based biocomposites, especially in the construction industry for use in architectural structures. Furthermore, their hollow structure enables their application in thermal and acoustical insulation, while the matrix is formed by polymers derived from renewable and non-renewable resources. It provides protection for the reinforcement fibers from environmental degradation and mechanical damage as well as a binder agent to adhere the fibers together and to transfer the loads on it. Biofibers originally are derived from biological origins, such as hemp and sisal [3]. This typically classifies biocomposites as being non-wood or wood-based fibers. The non-wood or natural fibers are better in their physical and mechanical properties, as well as their length and high cellulose content that deliver a high tensile strength; however, they are hydrophilic due to their content of hydroxyl groups (OH), which cause swelling and voids at the interface of the composite that affect their mechanical properties and dimensional stability. This is unlike wood fibers, which have a lower degree of cellulose crystallinity with varied flexibility and strength between softwood fibers (long and flexible) and hardwood fibers (shorter and stiffer). However, these wood fibers could be recycled or non-recycled, which hinders their sustainability. Wood-based fibers with more than 60% of their content being wood hinders the conservation of wood-trees and forests, in addition to the complicated processing of wood-based fibers.
These biocomposites suffer from lack of compatibility between synthetic resin and natural fibers [4][5][6]. This deters from the overall coherence and mechanical properties of the biocomposite, demanding a new method for developing biocomposites with enhanced coherency by creating a homogenous paste so that the reinforcement is well mixed with the matrix on a micro scale. This leads to a shift from fiber-based biocomposites to particle or platelet-based biocomposites. Seashell-based biocomposites are one possible solution, since seashells exhibit the organization of the martial microstructure in laminated platelets or particles on a micro scale [7][8]. This opens wider possibilities for integrating non-agro wastes in biocomposite material composition. Thus, in the current study, a seashell-based biocomposite material is developed from food waste and tested for biowelding by Pleurotus ostreatus mycelium. The material composition, printability, rheology, biocompatibility, and the physiochemical reactions with the mycelium were tested, as well as the mutual effect of the geometry and the material on the biowelding process by the mycelium and vice-versa. Further mechanical tests of this seashell–mycelium-based biocomposite will be exhibited in a following study on the mechanical properties of the developed biocomposite (seashell–mycelium brick) from a material–geometry interaction point of view.

Seashell Biocomposite from Recycled Food Waste

Seashells were a popular ingredient in building materials in vernacular architecture. Tabby concrete is one example that was made from mixing burnt oyster shells to create lime, with water, sand, ash, and broken oyster shells. Originating from the North African Islamic Architecture building materials and transferred to the Iberic Peninsula in the Middle Ages, it was made into bricks or used as “oyster shell mortar” or “burnt shell mortar”. Numerous surviving examples of Tabby concrete can be found in vernacular buildings in Morocco and Spain with mild differences such as adding Spanish moss to the Spanish Tabby [9]. Interestingly, Tabby concrete is a man-made mimicry of coquina, the naturally formed sedimentary rock derived from shells and used for building. Later in the early 19th century, the Tabby concrete became popular in building construction, coated by plaster or stucco for protection.
Despite being a popular traditional building material, it was replaced by clay bricks in the construction industry, since clay bricks became more affordable were produced on a mass scale. Recently, the sustainability challenge in the construction industry triggers reducing the use of non-renewable materials with high carbon emission production processes and introducing more durable and eco-friendly produced materials. Thus, seashell biocomposites from recycled food waste of seashells and molluscs, which are rich in calcium carbonate, offer an eco-friendly and structurally sound alternative building material. Recently, limited attempts to develop and study seashell biocomposites focused on their mechanical and chemical properties as regenerative materials for regenerative medicine applications, replacing the expensive, invasive, and infectious practices such as grafts. For example, Razali, et al., developed PLA biocomposites filled with calcined seashell particles prepared by melt mixing technique using a twin-screw extruder to produce a homogenous dispersion of fillers within the biopolymeric matrix, with enhanced tensile modulus and strength compared to the typical PLA [10](Razali et al., 2021). Other studies proposed seashell composites as an alternative building material. For example, the mechanical and chemical properties of the mollusc shells were studied and evaluated for their calcium carbonate content, and so a proposition of the implementation of seashell-reinforced composites in the construction industry as an alternative for non-renewable materials [11] was made.
Another study tested the mechanical properties of developed seashell biocomposites from sintered seashell filler sourced from Mediterranean coasts’ seashells using heat-treatment with calcium oxide (CaO). This revealed the relation between the developed seashells’ filler wing-like morphology with its mechanical properties’ improvement and proved the effect of the seashells’ filler on surface microhardness of the biopolymers as well. The developed biocomposite contained 20 wt% of the seashell fillers to poly butylene succinate, poly lactic acid, chitin, chitosan, and poly(ɛ-caprolactone), to improve the biocomposites’ hardness values by 29.8%, 57.9%, 51.1%, 26.2%, and 73.4%, respectively [12]. Another study developed a 3D printing binder jet mechanism to bond seashell powder-based ceramic composites [13], varying the composition of the composite powders from 5% to 50% of the seashell powder to plaster and achieving the necessary green strengths within the binder-jet process conditions. This reached the optimum levels of seashell powder of 15–20% by weight in terms of the best compression strengths.
Another study proved the durability of partially replaced seashell cement prepared by grinding and burning bivalve clam seashells to produce seashell ash powder. This partially replaced cement by 5, 10, 15, and 20% by weight; these were tested and compared with a SCO that had 0% seashell ash powder (SCO) [14]. The use of seashell-based concrete mixes as a replacement of fine aggregates, coarse aggregate, or as supplementary cementitious materials [15][16] is recommended.
Many experimental studies have proposed the use of waste materials in cement manufacturing [17], especially seashell waste accumulating on coastal areas in seashell-concrete as cement replacement in bricks production [18]. The seashell waste improves the mechanical and physical properties of concrete thanks to its high calcium content [19]. However, in all these previously mentioned studies, seashells were used as a supportive or partial mechanical enhancer, but not the main reinforcement in a composite.
The significance of seashell waste as a potent sustainable construction material arises from its abundance, since every year, about 45,000 tons of waste seashells are produced around the world [14]. This waste develops smelly odors due to the degradation of the left-over flesh or the decomposition of the salts contained in the shells into gases such as H2S, NH3, and organic compounds such as amines [14]. The seashell waste sources are varied in their types, including oyster shells, mussel shells, scallop shells, periwinkle shells, and cockle shells.
The chemical composition of seashells varies according to the type of shells, source, and mineral composition of the water bodies. Despite the slight differences in their chemical composition, raw seashells are highly rich in calcium carbonate (CaCO3—95–97%) with small quantities of minerals and organic materials [20][21][22]. The seashell powder produced by burning the shells at high temperatures is rich in calcium oxide (CaO 52 to 57%) depending on the type and the composition of CaCO3 content of the raw shells [14], and the adopted burning method at 1000 °C [23] to convert it from CaCO3 to CaO. Further parameters include the shape of the particles and their textures, and surface area.
However, the bioreceptivity of cementitious materials was tested infrequently in literature. For example, a study on the bioreceptivity of cementitious materials tested the suitability of magnesium phosphate cement (MPC) materials to allow a rapid natural colonization compared to carbonated OPC samples. This was conducted by modifying the aggregate size, the w/c ratio, and the amount of cement paste of mortars made of both binders [24], proving the effect of pH, porosity, and roughness in achieving better bioreceptivity of green concrete walls [24]. Another study focused on modifying concrete structures to facilitate bioreceptivity and biodiversity by substituting cement binder and aggregates in varying proportions and combinations to enhance the primary bioreceptivity of concrete, either chemically or via micro topographical texture. This tended towards enhancing surface roughness for enhanced bioreceptivity, rather than the chemical tunning of concrete that is likely to be spatio-temporally limited for months [25]. Thus, there is a shortage in studying the bioreceptivity of seashell biocomposites, which indicates the need for proposing seashell-based bioreceptive material as a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative construction material.

3. Mycelium Biocomposites and Biowelding

Mycelium biocomposites are widely applied to different areas, including construction and biomedical applications [26][27][28], due to their cost-effective and wasteless production methods. Mycelium can be grown on agro-waste substrates, composing a dense hyphal network of fine white filaments of 1–30 μm in diameter [29], integrating the agro wastes from pieces to continuous composites. These wastes are composed from cellulose, tannin, and lignin, along with other various proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates [30]. This produces the final product of the mycelium biocomposite after drying the mix at a high temperature for several hours to stop the growth of mycelium. Growth and processing parameters such as humidity and temperature rule the mycelium composite properties and consequent various applications. These mycelium–agro-waste composites enjoy enhanced mechanical properties for structural applications [31][32][33][34][35]. For example, mycelium-based foam and sandwich composites have been proposed as construction materials, as well as their use as synthetic planar materials like sheets and semi-structural materials for paneling, flooring, and furniture. Thus, the application scope of mycelium composites can be tailored by the customized growth of the fungal species, including the growth media and conditions as well as the further processing methods to achieve specific mechanical characteristics for specific applications either as structural materials or for acoustic and thermal insulation and fire resistance. For example, substrates, including rice husks and glass fines, significantly increase the fire resistance of the mycelium biocomposite [36][37]. In acoustic insulation, mycelium composites achieved over 70–75% acoustic absorption at 1000 Hz, where different mycelium biocomposite panels were tested using various substrates. The highest acoustic absorption was achieved by using 50% switchgrass and 50% sorghum. This lead to the development of composite acoustic panels that are cost-effective and biodegradable [32]. Furthermore, mycelium is also a source of different types of chitins and chitosan known for their competent mechanical properties [28].
Mycelium composites are ecofriendly in terms of their production methods as an alternative to the traditional construction materials [38]. On the other hand, the agro waste from the rapidly increasing annual consumption of agricultural products—which are usually discarded or burned—generate carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases [38]. However, these agro-waste materials have been used in limited application as low-durability building materials, such as components in bricks and green concrete for low-rise buildings, insulation materials, or for non-structural applications like fillers for road construction [39]. A more sustainable approach to integrate these agro-waste materials in durable and efficient construction materials is therefore needed.
This integration of agro wastes as substrate for mycelium biocomposites is starting to gain interest, as exhibited in some recently published studies. For example, a recent study tested two different mycelium composites for construction applications. These were mycelium-based foam (MBF) and mycelium-based sandwich composites (MBSC) [40]. The MBF made by growing mycelium homogenously in agricultural wastes in small pieces [41] produced fibers that bind these pieces together to form a porous material [42][43]. The MBSC panels utilized natural fibers as the top and bottom layers, with the central core made of the agricultural wastes combined with mycelium to form a sandwich structure of higher bending rigidity [43]. Both MBF and MBSC have proven mechanical strength, lightweight, and environmental advantages in building insulation, [31][40][43][44]. As well as foams, mycelium glues the core material to the fibers though the interface generated during the mycelium growth to resist delamination at the material interface under shear force, leading to a strong composite board with high bending stiffness [43][45].
The mycelium mechanical properties are controlled by its branched hyphal filaments and the topology of the network structures [34] which increase the contact area with the complex porous substrate. Every single mycelium fiber is composed of an array of cells separated by a septum and enclosed within the same cell wall. Tiny holes in the septum allow for the rapid flow of nutrients, water, and other small molecules from cell to cell along with the mycelium fiber. The cell wall protects the mycelium and provides mechanical strength, and is composed of a layer of chitin, a layer of glucans, and a layer of proteins on the cell membrane [33]. Chitin, which is a complex polysaccharide of N-acetylglucosamine, is located on the cell membrane and gives structural strength to the cell walls of fungal hyphae. It has α-chitin polymorph that is abundant in both crustacean and fungal chitin [46].
Thus, the mechanical properties of mycelium biocomposites are defined by the fungal strain, the substrate structure controlling the matrix mechanics within the composite, the growth conditions, the post-growth processing methods, and the water content of the final composite. Considering the competent mechanical properties and sustainable value of recycled seashells from food waste, the research aims to develop a seashell–mycelium biocomposite material, combining the strength of the calcium-carbonate-rich seashells with the binding effect of the dense mycelium. The interaction between the seashell biocomposite and the grown mycelium to bind the separate 3D-printed profiles of the V3 linear brick model (V3-LBM) was tested and triggered an active biomineralization reaction of the biocomposite. The capacity of the mycelium in welding non-spatial lattice forms was also tested.

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