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Timilsena, Y.P.; Phosanam, A.; Stockmann, R. Applications of Saponins. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/48999 (accessed on 18 May 2024).
Timilsena YP, Phosanam A, Stockmann R. Applications of Saponins. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/48999. Accessed May 18, 2024.
Timilsena, Yakindra Prasad, Arissara Phosanam, Regine Stockmann. "Applications of Saponins" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/48999 (accessed May 18, 2024).
Timilsena, Y.P., Phosanam, A., & Stockmann, R. (2023, September 11). Applications of Saponins. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/48999
Timilsena, Yakindra Prasad, et al. "Applications of Saponins." Encyclopedia. Web. 11 September, 2023.
Applications of Saponins
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ijms241713538

Saponins are a diverse group of naturally occurring plant secondary metabolites present in a wide range of foods ranging from grains, pulses, and green leaves to sea creatures. They consist of a hydrophilic sugar moiety linked to a lipophilic aglycone, resulting in an amphiphilic nature and unique functional properties. Their amphiphilic structures enable saponins to exhibit surface-active properties, resulting in stable foams and complexes with various molecules. In the context of food applications, saponins are utilized as natural emulsifiers, foaming agents, and stabilizers. They contribute to texture and stability in food products and have potential health benefits, including cholesterol-lowering and anticancer effects. Saponins possess additional bioactivities that make them valuable in the pharmaceutical industry as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, and antiparasitic agents to name a few. Saponins can demonstrate cytotoxic activity against cancer cell lines and can also act as adjuvants, enhancing the immune response to vaccines. 

saponins emulsifiers foaming agents

1. Introduction

Plant extracts containing saponins have been widely used in food and other industrial applications, mainly as surface active and foaming agents for centuries [1]. Recently, they have been regaining popularity, especially in skincare and cosmetics applications [2].
Among various plants, Quillaja saponaria extracts have been used as foaming agents in carbonated beverages and cosmetics, as emulsifiers in preparations containing lipophilic colors or flavors, and as preservatives [3][4]. Likewise, liquorice saponin extracts are used as flavor modifiers in baked foods, chewing gums, beverages, candies, herbs, seasonings, and dietary supplements [3].
Saponins in foods have traditionally been considered antinutritional factors [5], and in some cases their use has been limited due to bitter taste [6]. Therefore, most of the earlier research on food processing targeted the removal of saponins so that foods were as devoid of saponins as possible [6]. However, food and non-food sources of saponins have come into renewed focus in recent years due to increasing evidence of their health benefits, including their cholesterol-lowering ability, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulant, hypoglycaemic, antifungal, cytotoxic, and anticancer properties [7][8]. Recent research has established saponins as the active components in many herbal medicines [9][10], and highlighted their contributions to the health benefits of foods such as soybeans [11][12] and garlic [13]. The commercial potential of saponins has resulted in the development of new processes/processing strategies, and re-evaluation of existing technologies [14] for their extraction and concentration [15].
The ensuing sections will elaborate some of the applications of saponins.

2. Saponins as Natural Surfactants and Emulsifiers

Saponins, due to the presence of a lipid-soluble aglycone and water-soluble sugar chain, show amphiphilic characteristics. This structural make-up gives saponins a surface-active propensity similar to that of soaps or detergents. With one hydrophilic component and one lipophilic component, when dissolved in water, saponins tend to align themselves with the lipophilic part away from water, which leads to a reduction in the surface tension and causes foaming [16]. It is well understood that when the concentration of saponins is above the critical micelle concentration (CMC), they are able to form micelles (as shown in Figure 1) in aqueous solution. Consequently, saponins can enhance the solubility of other substances. Compared to synthetic surfactants, saponins are more effective in enhancing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons’ solubilization [17].
The size and structure of micelles are dependent on the structure of saponins. For example, saponins from S. officinalis and soybean bean form small micelles consisting of only two molecules, while the aggregates of Quillaja saponaria saponins consist of 50 molecules. It was documented that the properties and the aggregation number (number of monomers) of micelles formed by quillaja saponins are affected by temperature, salt concentration, and pH level. Saponins from Quillaja saponaria have a CMC between 0.5 and 0.8 g/L at 25 °C, and the CMC decreases with increasing salt concentrations [18]. The micelle shapes depend on the saponin molecules. For example, micelles formed by saponins from S. officinalis and Quillaja saponaria are elongated or even filamentous, while those formed by saponins of Glycine max are rather circular. It is thought that the reason for these differences is the chemical structure of the aglycone.
Ijms 24 13538 g006
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of micelle formation (adapted from [19]).
The presence of carboxylic acid in the saponin molecular structure may strongly influence its surface activity. The location of this acid in the molecule has a particular importance. For example, Soybean saponins contain a carboxyl group in their hydrophilic part. The carboxyl group dissociates in the aqueous phase and forms free carboxyl anions, which are responsible for increasing the solubility of saponins in water environments. In contrast, saponins of Indian soapberry/washnut/ritha (Sapindus mukorossi) also contain the carboxylic groups, but they are attached to the hydrophobic aglycone. Consequently, the dissociation level of -COOH groups is very low. Saponins can also form mixed ‘sandwich-like’ or ‘pile of coins-like’ micelles with bile acids [18]. These are much larger than the micelles of saponins alone, and they differ depending on the structure of the aglycone. In the presence of bile acids, saponins from Saponaria officinalis and Quillaja saponaria form filamentous structures, while Glycine max saponins have an open structure. The ability of saponins to form large stable micelles with bile acids has important implications for dietary mechanisms. Saponins in food and feed increase fecal excretion of bile acids [18]. Additionally, the incorporation of cholesterol into saponin micelles increases their size, CMC, viscosity, and the aggregation level, resulting in the enhanced solubility of cholesterol. The micelles formed are too large for the digestive tract to absorb. This mechanism leads to a decrease in the plasma cholesterol concentration. Saponin Quillaja saponaria was found to solubilize cholesterol significantly better than linear hydrocarbon chain surfactants [20].
Interaction between saponins and membrane-bound cholesterol leads to pore formation and increasing of membrane permeability. This specific effect of saponins depends on a combination of factors, including the membrane composition, the type of saponin, and especially the nature of aglycone [21]. Saponins also form complexes with sterols in mucosal cell membranes, resulting in an increase in the intestinal mucosal cells’ permeability. Thus, this facilitates the uptake of substances to which the gut would normally be impermeable, for example, α-lactoglobulin [18].
Emulsifiers play two key roles in the creation of successful emulsion-based products. They facilitate the initial formation of fine lipid droplets during homogenization and enhance the stability of the lipid droplets once they have been formed. Oil-in-water emulsions may be formed using either high- or low-energy approaches. High-energy approaches utilize mechanical devices such as homogenizers, microfluidizers, high shear mixers, colloid mills, and sonicators. Quillaja saponin is a natural effective emulsifier to form and stabilize oil/water emulsions with very small oil beads (d  <  200 nm). They are stable within a wide range of environmental parameters (pH, ionic strength, temperature). This fact makes quillaja saponins suitable for wide application in food products [22]. Quillaja saponins currently find commercial applications as emulsifiers with milk and egg proteins such as β-lactoglobulin, β-casein or egg lysozyme via stabilization through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions as well as via specific sugar binding sites [23].
One investigation into the emulsifying properties of quillaja saponins was carried out by Pekdemir et al. [24], who screened for a natural surfactant to be used for the emulsification of Ekofisk crude oil from the North Sea. The researchers found that quillaja bark saponin was able to emulsify the crude oil even at low concentrations of 0.1%, albeit only to a limited oil-to-surfactant ratio [24]. In recent years though, many studies have been performed to elucidate the formation of emulsions stabilized by various quillaja saponin products and manufactured with different homogenization techniques [25]. The observed emulsion-stabilizing properties were attributed to a strong electrostatic repulsion provided by quillaja saponins, because they have an unusually high negative ζ-potential of approximately −60 mV between pH 3 and 9 [26][27]. An additional contributor is their fast adsorption kinetics [27][28]. Lower mean droplet sizes of emulsions stabilized with quillaja saponins can be achieved at higher saponin concentrations [26][29], at high homogenization pressures [26], and after several homogenization passes [26][27][30].

3. Saponins as Natural Foaming Agents

A foam consists of a gas dispersed in a liquid, solid, or gelled matrix in the form of bubbles [31]. Basically, the gas bubbles (often air) are surrounded by a continuous thin liquid film, the so-called lamella, and thin film intersections (plateau borders), forming interstitial spaces between the bubbles, and thus creating a three-dimensional network [32]. The formation of foams requires energy and is facilitated by whipping, shaking, or sparging of a solution [31]. Depending on the chosen application, the continuous liquid phase can additionally be gelled or solidified after the foam has been generated [33]. Foams are thermodynamically unstable, and as such are prone to different instability mechanisms induced by gravitational and van der Waals forces, leading to drainage, coalescence, and coarsening [34]. Therefore, their stabilization requires surface-active compounds such as surfactants and (bio)polymers and particles such as silica and polystyrene latex particles [34]. These surface-active molecules adsorb to the gas–liquid interface and reduce the interfacial tension, thus enabling the formation and stabilization of foams. The stabilization mechanisms and kinetic stability of the foams depend on the characteristics of the surface-active compounds used [34].
Generally, saponins with one sugar chain have superior foaming characteristics compared to those containing more sugar chains [18]. Quillaja saponins are well known for their foaming ability. In fact, the indigenous peoples of Chile used the aqueous solution of Quillaja saponaria bark to wash their hair and clothes as it produces a foam-like soap lather [3]. The quality and quantity of foam produced in the extract is used to qualitatively measure the concentration of saponins in the extracts [1]. Quillaja extract exhibits a good foam-stabilizing ability, with 85% of the foam still intact after 1 h of storage [35]. Foams stabilized with quillaja were found to be more stable at a lower pH (pH 3) and higher ionic strength (500 mM NaCl). It is suggested that bidesmosidic nature of quillaja saponins helps in reducing the destabilization of the membrane in foams [35].
A study involving the foaming attributes of the saponins from Camellia oleifera showed that the crude saponin content in the defatted seed meal of C. oleifera was 8.34%, and the total saponins content in the crude saponins extract was 39.5% (w/w) [36]. The foaming power of the 0.5% crude saponins extract solution from defatted seed meal of C. oleifera was 37.1% compared to that of 0.5% sodium lauryl sulfate or Tween 80 solutions.
The green fruits of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis), a South American plant, are a rich source of non-toxic and very low haemolytic saponins [37]. A study conducted to compare the effectiveness of mate saponin fraction (MSF) with sodium dodecyl sulfate (ionic surfactant) and polysorbate 80 (non-ionic surfactant) showed that the foamability of MSF and both reference surfactants were equivalent. The addition of MgCl2 resulted in a negative effect on MSF foamability. The salts NaCl, KBr, and KNO3 exhibited a negative influence on MSF foam lifetime and film drainage.

4. Saponins as Natural Antioxidants

Saponins are well recognized for their antioxidant activities. A higher free radical scavenging capacity was found for quillaja saponin extract compared to lecithin when using an oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay [38]. Quillaja saponin extract was also reported for its ability to cause a significant reduction in hydroperoxide and propanal (propionaldehyde) formation in nanoemulsions stabilized by saponin-rich extract compared to lecithin, SDS and Tween 80-based systems [38]. Ivy leaf extract is a rich source of triterpenoid monodesmosidic saponins, which exhibit a high antioxidant activity, DPPH radical and superoxide anion scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging and metal chelating activities [39]. These saponins demonstrate expectorant, mucolytic, spasmolytic, bronchodilatory, and antibacterial effects, and are widely used in the treatment of bronchitis and pneumonia [40]. A study that investigated the possible antiradical and antioxidant activity of the monodesmosidic and crude extract of Leontice smirnowii showed a strong inhibition effect of peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion [41]. It has been reported that in some legume saponins such as those from soybeans, kidney beans, peanuts, chickpeas and clover, antioxidant properties are associated with the presence of 2,3-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (DDMP) linked to the C-22 of saponin aglycones [42][43]. In some saponin extracts including those from quillaja, antioxidant properties are associated with the phenolic compounds and their presence at the interface, facilitated by saponin molecules [44].
Han et al. [45] investigated the contents of saponins and phenolic compounds in relation to their antioxidant activity, as well as the α-glucosidase inhibition activity of several colored quinoa varieties. It was found that a higher degree of milling or polishing (i.e., removal of the outer layer) can reduce the contents of saponins, total phenolics, and anti-nutritional factors and improve their sensory quality, irrespective of varietal differences. Saponins and phenolic compounds significantly contribute to the antioxidant activities of quinoa. In another study, quinoa sprouts showed better antioxidant activity than fully grown parts of the quinoa plant. Overall, root and sprout had a higher antioxidant capacity compared to other parts of the quinoa plant, suggesting the potential use of quinoa root and sprout as a nutraceutical ingredient in the health food industry [46].
A study of the antioxidant activities of Aralia taibaiensis, a natural medicinal and food plant that is rich in triterpenoid saponins, in D-galactose-induced aging rats showed that it possesses a radical scavenging effect and can alleviate D-gal-induced aging damage in rats [47]. The saponins from Hedera helix, and Hedera colchica exhibited a strong total antioxidant activity. Four different saponins (α-Hederin, hederasaponin-C, hederacolchisides-E and -F) isolated from the leaves of Hedrea helix were evaluated for their ability to inhibit lipid oxidation. At the concentration of 75 pg/mL, these saponins (α-Hederin, hederasaponin-C, hederacolchisides-E and -F) showed 94, 86, 88, and 75% inhibition on lipid peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion, respectively. These various antioxidant activities were compared with model antioxidants such as α-tocopherol, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) [39]. Inhibition of only 65% was shown by α-tocopherol, whereas BHA and BHT showed 90% and 95% inhibition of lipid oxidation [39]. This indicated that saponins are superior to α-tocopherol and comparable to synthetic antioxidants BHA and BHT in inhibiting peroxidation.
Among the crude and total saponin fractions of Chlorophytum borivilianum, the crude extract showed higher free radical scavenging activity (2578 ± 111 mg ascorbic acid equivalents/100 g) and bleaching activity (IC50 = 0.7 mg mL−1), whist the purified saponin fraction displayed higher ferrous ion-chelating capacity (EC50 = 1 mg mL−1) [48].

5. Medicinal Applications of Saponins

Saponins are considered pro-drugs as they are converted to pharmacologically active substances after metabolization in the body [49]. Various in vivo studies have established their hemolytic [50], anti-inflammatory [51], antibacterial [52], antifungal [53], antiviral [54], insecticidal [55], anticancer [56], cytotoxic [57], hepatoprotective and molusccidal [58] properties. In addition, saponins are reported to exhibit cholesterol-lowering action in animals and humans [59][60] and have been found effective in decreasing blood glucose levels in diabetic patients [61]. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the hypocholesterolemic activity of saponins. Possible mechanisms may involve the capacity of saponins to form insoluble complexes with cholesterol, interfere with bile acid metabolism, and inhibit lipase activity, or regulate cholesterol homeostasis via monitoring the expression of the key regulatory genes of proteins or enzymes related to cholesterol metabolism [62][63]. The cholesterol-lowering activity of saponins has been demonstrated in both animal and human trials. Animal diets containing purified saponins or concentrated saponin extracts containing digitonin (saponin from Digitalis purpurea), saikosaponin (saponin from Bupleurumfalcatum and related plants), as well as saponins from saponaria, soybean, chickpea, yucca, alfalfa, fenugreek, quillaja, gypsohila, and garlic resulted in reductions in cholesterol concentrations [3].
Saponins can also be beneficial for hyperlipidaemia and are capable of reducing the risk of heart disease in humans [64]. Saponins may play a major role in protection from cancer. Research on colon cancer cells suggests that it is the lipophilic saponin cores that may be responsible for this biological activity [64]. A study of the relationship between the chemical structure of aglycones and the colon anticancer activity of saponins revealed that sapogenols were more bioactive than glycosidic saponins. Other aglycones with anticancer activity include dammarane sapogenins from ginseng, betulinic acid, and oleanolic acid. These compounds were also reported to possess anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-ulcer, antibacterial, hypoglycaemic, anti-fertility, and anticariogenic activities. However, the conversion of saponins to their aglycones may result in the loss of activity [65]. For example, the hydrolysis of saponins by ruminal bacteria results in the loss of antiprotozoal activity. Similarly, the deacylation of quillaja saponins decreases their adjuvant activity [66].
Due to the structural complexity and toxicity of plant saponins, their use in human vaccines is limited, but progress in new processing and purification techniques that maintain immunological adjuvant activity is important to create saponins as new-generation vaccines [67].
A steroidal saponin glycoside isolated from Fagonia indica was found to induce cell-selective apoptosis or necrosis in cancer cells. The clinical significance of triterpenoid saponins in the prevention and treatment of metabolic and vascular disease is noteworthy [49].
Saponins from various sources are important constituents of traditional folk medicines. Ginsenosides are saponins produced by Panax species which are known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities [68]. It has been reported that most saponins form insoluble complexes with 3-β-hydroxysteroids and are known to interact with bile acids and cholesterol, forming large mixed micelles. These functionalities are thought to result in the cholesterol-lowering capacities of saponins in some animal species; however, their hypocholesterolemic effects in humans are more speculative [64].
Although saponins are considered beneficial in several medical conditions and are being used as alternative medical substances, a detailed understanding of the relationship between the chemistry of saponins and their interactions with signaling and other biological pathways and systems is necessary to confirm their actions and safety for human or animal use. Multidisciplinary approaches involving chemists, physicians, toxicologists, molecular biologists, and others will be essential to explore and define the potential of saponins in this field [69].

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Subjects: Food Science & Technology; Pharmacology & Pharmacy
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Yakindra Prasad Timilsena
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Arissara Phosanam
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Regine Stockmann
View Times: 643
Entry Collection: Biopharmaceuticals Technology
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 11 Sep 2023
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