Functional Nanostructured Materials in the Cosmetics Industry

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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/chemengineering7040066

Cosmetics have always been in demand across the globe among people of all age groups. In the modern cosmetic world, nanostructured materials have proven hugely advantageous in producing cosmeceuticals or ‘nano-cosmeceuticals’ and various beauty products. The application of nanostructured materials in cosmetic products possesses some challenges in terms of short- and long-term safety and environmental issues, despite their growing popularity. The nanostructured particles in cosmeceuticals provide a targeted route of administration due to their high penetrability, site selectivity, high effectiveness, prolonged activity, and drug encapsulation potential. However, standard methods for toxicity evaluation may not be relevant for cosmeceuticals, leading to the need for an alternative methodology.

nanostructured materials cosmetics toxicity nano-cosmeceuticals

1. Introduction

The word ‘nanotechnology’ is made up of two words; the first word is the Greek word ‘nano’, which means tiny (e.g., of the nanometer length scale of ~1 to 100 nm), and the second word is ‘technology’ ^[1]. Nanotechnology possesses immense potential to improve a wide range of materials in research and applications and is therefore capable of gaining considerable attention in medical and pharmaceutical domains ^[2]. In recent years, the cosmetics industry has gained huge advantages through nanotechnology ^[3]^[4]. Cosmetics are designed to be applied on skin, sprayed, powdered, sprinkled or penetrated. These products are useful for enhancing a person’s attractiveness or modifying one’s appearance, and include skin moisturizers, fragrances, lipsticks, nail paints, eye and face makeup products, cleaning shampoos, permanent waves products, hair colors and deodorants, etc., as along with any material intended as a component of a cosmetic ^[5]. Nanostructured materials are useful in certain cosmetics, such as sun protection lotions, long-lasting cosmetics, and skin creams, as well as in pigment manufacturing ^[6]. These materials are helpful in creating enhanced properties such as improved fixation to the skin, penetration into the deeper layers of the skin, and the imparting of a consistent effect. Cosmeceuticals are cosmetic products which impart medicinal or druglike effects and benefits. The term ‘cosmeceuticals’ is not recognized by the United States FD&C Act (Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act). However, this term is used by cosmetics industries and manufacturers to combine these two classes of products, i.e., cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, to create a new class of products, i.e., medicinal cosmetics. Cosmetics temporarily treat the skin, and the effect is immediate and fast, while cosmeceuticals are designed to treat the root cause of skin problems and create long-lasting results. For example, anti-aging and photoprotective nano-cosmeceuticals can penetrate deep into the skin’s layers and establish dynamic aftereffects ^[7]. A variety of nano-cosmeceuticals containing cubosomes, liposomes, nano-emulsions, nanocrystals, hydrogels, and other nanostructured materials are extensively utilized in branded cosmetic products and have proven advantageous in terms of the dynamic stability of molecules, particularly in the inner skin layers ^[8], to obtain enhanced beauty effects ^[9].

The nanostructured materials in cosmetics have an edge over their conventional bulk counterparts such as improved activity, distinctive smoothness, clarity, reduced degradation, and less irritation to skin ^[10]. Oxides of zinc and titanium, which are white and opaque in their physical appearance at the bulk scale, create transparent formulations at the nanoscale and are employed in moisturizers and foundations ^[11]. Aluminum oxide nanoparticles are also useful to impart a calming effect in foundations, face powders, and high-end concealer sticks to reduce visible flaws and expression lines ^[12].

1.1. Significance of Nanomaterials

Nanotechnology has been utilized since ancient times by the Indians, Romans, Greeks, and Egyptians in the form of hair dyes and pigments. Indian data for cosmetic use span back many centuries (to more than 4000 BC), much like those from other regions of the world. Indians continue to utilize ritual-based as well as tradition-related items today in everyday life, even if some of them blend with modern cosmetics, such as carbon black (kajal) hair dyes and pigments. Historically, cosmetic goods were either made from natural ingredients or from natural ingredients modified in some way and are classified as herbal, e.g., sandalwood (Santalum album), red-vermillion (Bixa orellana), turmeric (Curcuma longa), amla or gooseberries (Phyllanthus emblica), reetha (Sapindus mukorossi), chickpea flour (Cicer reticulatum), henna (Lawsonia inermis), etc.), mineral (fuller’s earth, black earth, and red earth), or animal (milk, wax, honey, and curd); as well, some cosmetics are made from black soot and mineral powders ^[13]. ‘Kajal’ is similar to kohl, or carbon black; it is technically made from carbon nanoparticles and has been used for eye-liner makeup since ancient times by the people in the Indian subcontinent.

For over four decades, modern nanotechnology has been employed in the areas of processing skin repair and health-care products ^[14]^[15].

The term ‘cosmetics’ was coined by Raymond Reed in 1961, a founding member of the Cosmetic Chemists US Society. Cosmeceuticals have skin care solutions that enhance the skin tone and texture, and improve cleanliness and skin complexion ^[14]. These are physiologically and therapeutically active substances utilized in beauty products in order to add to their therapeutic values, e.g., healing of hyperpigmentation, uneven complexion, dark spots, skin irritation, photo-aging, wrinkles, hair damage, etc.; furthermore, they provide several additional benefits, e.g., drug-releasing capability is one of the most promising benefits of nano-cosmeceuticals which relies on parameters such as production process, the ratio of additives and drugs in the composition, and chemical or physical interactions between different components ^[16]. Nanostructured materials are tiny and can easily penetrate the deeper layers of the skin; therefore, they actively transfer the active components ^[17]. Most nanostructured-material-based cosmeceuticals can deliver both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs ^[18]. Better distribution of cosmetic bioactive compounds into the skin is one probable explanation cited by several academicians and researchers for the significant interest raised regarding the usage of these materials in cosmetics ^[19]. However, the outcomes of several research studies do not tend to support such a conclusion. This might be attributed to the non-reproducibility of data from various groups of researchers ^[4]. The key purpose of nano-cosmeceuticals is to attain, enhance, and sustain the desired properties in the target part of the body by releasing the correct amount of nanomaterials. Therefore, nanostructured particles are used in perfumes to help the aroma sustain for longer durations, in skin-whitening treatments, moisturizers, and antiwrinkle creams to improve the attractiveness of the skin, and in sunscreens and other skin care products to boost sunscreen effectiveness by increasing UV protection ^[20]^[21]^[22]. Although, nanostructured materials in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals have advantages as discussed above, there are also several adverse effects that have raised serious concerns for cosmetics and health scientists as well as environmentalists. Ratio and types of nanostructured materials utilized in the manufacturing of personal care products and in cosmetic applications are shown in Figure 1a,b. The relative pros and cons of nanostructured materials in cosmetics are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1. Nanostructured materials in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals (a) and types of nanostructured materials in cosmetic applications (b).

Figure 2. Relative merits of nanostructured materials in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals.

1.2. Worldwide Scenario of Cosmetics Production

The global cosmetic sector was valued at ~USD 380.2 billion in the year 2019. It is predicted to grow up to USD 463.5 billion by 2027, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.3 percent in the years 2021 to 2027. In this, the share of nano-cosmetic pigments in the market size has been estimated to be ~USD 1.1 billion by the year 2026 after increasing at a CAGR of 6% during the years 2021 to 2026. It has been observed that consumers for commercial cosmetics and cosmeceuticals come from every corner of the globe, irrespective of age, gender, culture, ethnicity, and economic status, probably because people are becoming alarmingly mindful of their physical appearance in addition to skills and intelligence. The market for skin care products has five major categories: moisturizers, face creams, body lotions, sun protection creams, and anti-aging creams. Hair care, skin care, bath and shower, oral care, men’s grooming, deodorants, and antiperspirants are the major segments of the beauty and wellness product market. The cosmetic products market also includes the sections of lips, nails, eyes, and facials ^[23].

1.3. Market Analysis of Nano-Cosmetic Pigments on the Basis of Type, Application, and Geography

The demand for nanopigment-bearing cosmetics for coloring materials has gained significant attention and demand due to their efficiency of easy customization of makeup products to match unique choices and requirements to enhance the attractiveness of skin, hair, and overall appearances ^[24]. The share in the nano-cosmetics pigments market is dominated by inorganic nanoparticles and shows a growing rate, at a CAGR of 6.45%, during the years 2021–2026. Since inorganic metallic nanoparticles including TiO₂, ZnO, SiO₂, and Al₂O₃ play a significant role in the cosmetics industry for enhancing color, coating capability, and achieving a smooth texture, these have therefore been termed ‘nano-cosmetic pigments.’ These pigments can combine with organic materials to improve the overall quality and effectiveness of cosmetics ^[25]. Nontoxic in nature and showing hydrophilic, and biocompatible behavior as well as high stability are some of the features which are offered by these pigments over organic nanoparticles. Mostly, ZnO and TiO₂ nanostructured particles are employed in sunscreens and similar skin-care products. These show appreciable results and enhance cosmetic effects because of better dispersion as UV filters; they begin at the particle size of 20 nm. TiO₂ particles makes sunscreens more effective due to a higher sun protection factor (SPF) at the nanoscale. Therefore, inorganic nanostructured particles are expected to increase the demand for the development of future nano-cosmetic pigments in many regions. The facial makeup segment dominates the nano-cosmetic pigments market, which includes titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, carbon black, and iron oxide as key materials. This segment is expected to grow at the CAGR of 7.3% from the year 2021 to 2026. Titanium oxide is widely used in foundations, blushers, and powders to enhance the skin’s clarity and appearance. Sun protection is a significant feature of face powders, which act by scattering light by means of nanoparticles like ZnO. The size and distribution of the nanoparticles also play an important role in these products by regulating their appearance, stability, and protection against sunrays. Therefore, the demand for these pigments increased to 41% in European industries in the year 2020. One of the largest markets in Europe is in France, worth EUR 720 million (according to the Centre for the Promotion of Imports from developing countries (CBI) and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs). In the year 2017, the cosmetics industry of Italy had the turnover of USD 12.3 million (according to the International Trade Administration (ITA)). It is anticipated that this is due to increase in market value, and demand for nano-cosmetic pigments will also rise in the coming years. The different global cosmetics/cosmeceuticals market statistics are shown in shown in the Figure 3.

Figure 3. (a) Global cosmetic market (2020–2030) (b) cosmeceutical market size (c) cosmeceuticals, and nano-cosmetic pigments market by revenue, (d) type andapplication, (e) geographic region ^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31]^[32]. * Others: hair color products; special effect and special purpose products; and miscellaneous products.

2. Synthesis of Nanostructured Materials

2.1. Phytogenic and Microbial Biosynthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles

Nanotization has been reported as one of the microbial defense mechanisms against metallic-ion-induced stress. This process exploits various biological reducing agents in an eco-friendly condition ^[33]. Some specific biomolecules present in the microbial biomass can prevent agglomeration of the particles and inhibit steric effects by covering the metallic nanostructured particles (meta-NPs) and are called capping agents. These biomolecules can alter biological activity and surface chemistry of meta-NPs as well as prepare a stable medium for biosynthesis ^[34]. Meta-NPs can exert an influence on microbial cells by protein channels, efflux pump, or feasible penetration through the cell membrane ^[35].

Bacteria, algae, fungi, yeasts, and plants have been used as biofactories of meta-NPs that encourage the development of green chemistry. Also, vigorous viruses have the potential to engage in transferring meta-NPs. Therefore, these are identified to be potent carriers for meta-NPs, and are well-established for encapsulation ^[36]. Some biological reducing agents, such as enzymes, electron shuttle quinones, peptides, proteins, and polysaccharides, have been known to play an essential role in transforming metallic salt/ions to meta-NPs including silver, gold, platinum, palladium, copper, cadmium, titanium oxide, zinc oxide, and cadmium nanoparticles ^[37].

Bacterial biosynthesis of meta-NPs occurs in the presence of endogenous enzymes, proteins, and pigments. This technique requires a low consumption of energy and therefore creates an eco-friendly method. Fungi secrete considerable amounts of reducing agents, such as enzymes and proteins, which can provide a befitting media for the extracellular generation of meta-NPs ^[38]. The fungal cell wall is composed of functional molecules suitable for the intracellular biomineralization of Ag-NPs. Thus, the application of fungi in the biosynthesis of silver nanostructured particles has been elaborately explored ^[39]. Cytochrome b5 reductase enzyme, which is extracted from the fungus Mucor racemosus, is known to be a potent generator of meta-NPs. It can produce well-dispersed and stable meta-NPs within the size range of 70–180 nm ^[40]. The development of fungi-oriented systems for microbial biosynthesis of meta-NPs has emerged as an advancing, key branch of myco-nanotechnology. Also, fungi have appeared to be an efficient candidate for the generation of stable, polydispersed, and appropriately sized meta-NPs ^[41]. In addition, a variety of meta-NPs such as Ag-NP, Au-NP, Se-NP, CdS-NP, Fe-NP, Pa-NP, and ZnS-NP have been synthesized using edible mushrooms ^[42]). The generation of meta-NPs using yeast extract is an efficient process, due to amino acid components which tend to be used as a capping agent for covering meta-NPs. Amino acids can induce a negative net charge on the molecular surface of meta-NPs and maximize electrostatic repulsion in alkaline solutions ^[43].

Certain classes of algae, such as cynophyceae, chlorophyceae, phaeophycea, and rhodophyceae, have been reported to couple with the synthesis of meta-NPs both intra- and extracellularly. This is due to the presence of bioactive compounds, such as algal phytopigments and antioxidants, which exhibit reductase activity with the highest biocompatibility ^[44].

Moreover, the use of plants or plant extracts in biosynthesis of NPs is known as a phytogenic biosynthesis of meta-NPs, which can be categorized as an environmentally friendly, bottom-up strategy. Figure 4 illustrates the different sources of phytogenic biosynthesis as well as microbial biosynthesis of meta-NPs.

Figure 4. Biosynthesis of meta-NPs. (a) Phytogenic biosynthesis of meta-NPs via exploiting plants and algae. (b) Microbial biosynthesis of meta-NPs via employing bacteria, fungi, yeasts, and viruses. (c) Intra/extracellular microbial biosynthesis of meta-NPs. This nanotization process is conducted by employing reductase, capping agents, and metallic ions. (The figures were created using the website Canva.com (accessed on 1 May 2023)).

2.2. Chemical and Physical Methods of Synthesis

The two main approaches to synthesizing nanomaterials, viz., top-down and bottom-up techniques, are illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Synthesis of nanostructured particles: (A) top-down and bottom-up approaches; (B) ball-milling method of a top-down approach; and (C) sol-gel and hydrothermal methods of a bottom-up approach.

Chemical synthesis is a bottom-up method to synthesize nanostructured materials from molecules, compounds, or complexes. On the other hand, cutting, grinding, and engraving methods, employed in the top-down strategy, necessitate the size reduction of the particles down to nanosized dimensions ^[45]. Chemical reduction, micro-emulsion formation, electrochemical synthesis, sol-gel synthesis, microwave assistance synthesis, and hydrothermal synthesis are a few examples of chemical processes employed to create nanomaterials. The physical processes include mechanical milling, vacuum vapor deposition, and laser ablation methods ^[46]. Physically manufactured nanostructured materials often possess a lower quality than those created by chemical methods. In addition, the finished product of the physical procedures requires expensive equipment, e.g., a vacuum system. On the other hand, the procedures involved in the bottom-up approach are easier to control and are more efficient compared to the top-down approach; therefore, these are frequently employed in industries ^[47].

3. Organic Nanostructured Materials in Cosmetics Industry

Organic NPs are variable in size, biodegradable, nontoxic, and sensitive to thermal and electrical radiation. These are used in different pharmaceutical applications, such as skin care and transdermal drug delivery ^[48]. Nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon nano-fullerenes, graphene, and nanosized soot and activated carbon are examples of carbon-only NPs ^[49]. Nano-emulsions, nanostructured crystals, vesicular delivery methods for nano-encapsulation, micelles, polymeric nanostructured capsules, solid lipid nanostructured particles (SLN), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), liposomes, niosomes, and dendrimers are some examples of organic NPs ^[50]. Various organic NPs used in cosmetics industries are shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Organic nanostructured materials used in cosmetics industries.

3.1. Liposomes

The term ‘liposome’ is derived from the terms ‘lipo’ and ‘soma’, which refer to fat bodies. The structure of a liposome includes hydrophobic phospholipid bilayers containing an aqueous medium within spherical vesicles ^[51].

Liposomes form from cholesterol and natural phospholipids in an aqueous environment with proper lipid-to-water ratio ^[52]. The lipid bilayer is made up of phospholipids and considered as a safe or low-risk component for skin ^[53]. Liposomes can improve skin smoothness, minimize acne rashes, and diminish wrinkles in clinical tests. These have been also designed to distribute vitamins, phytochemicals, and perfumes in waterless products like lipsticks, deodorants, body sprays, and antiperspirants ^[54]. Phospholipids are nontoxic and may be unsaturated or saturated. For example, unsaturated phosphatidylcholine originates from a natural source that is less stable but more permeable. Long acyl chains produce a hard, impermeable bilayer structure in the saturated ones, such as dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine ^[55].

3.2. Nano-Emulsions

Nano-emulsions, closely related to micro-emulsions, are liquid droplets that are spread in another liquid on the nanoscale. These are flexible, and their morphologies may be altered by manipulating the parameters during the production process ^[56]. Nano-emulsions can be made from a variety of components that are typically harmless. They possess better stability and are efficient in delivering active chemicals in cosmetics due to their size ^[57]. Molecules are encapsulated or stabilized as nano-emulsions for the manufacturing of skin creams to increase skin penetration ^[58] and are widely utilized in cosmeceuticals, e.g., lotions, shampoos, nail polishes, and hair conditioners, as a medium for the regulated release of biologically active chemicals ^[59]. Nano-emulsions more effectively deliver lipophilic chemicals compared to liposomes. Nanopigments can be also incorporated, in addition to nano-emulsions, to obtain a product with enhanced properties ^[60].

3.3. Niosomes

These are nanosized vesicles generated in an aqueous media using non-ionic surfactants and cholesterol ^[61]. In the 1970s, a popular cosmetic company developed the first niosomes from synthetic liposomes and patented their product in the year 1987 ^[62]. Cholesterol and non-ionic surfactants, such as alkyl amines, alkyl ethers, spans, polyoxyethylene, sorbitan esters, tweens, and bridges; steroid-bound surfactants; and crown esters are all important elements in the synthesis of niosomes ^[63]. Niosomes can be utilized to carry drug/medications that are not easily absorbed or entrapped. Niosomes have also been used as a carrier of iobitridol, which is a diagnostic agent used for X-ray imaging ^[64]. Several noisome-based cosmeceutical products are available in the market, including conditioner, shampoo, moisturizer, skin-lightening creams, and antiwrinkle creams ^[65].

3.4. Nanocapsules

Nanocapsules, either solid- or liquid-core, contain cosmetically active components in a cavity surrounded by a synthetic or natural polymer membrane. These are utilized in cosmetics to safeguard essential active ingredients ^[66]. The various components are encapsulated by polymeric nanocapsule solutions and can be directly applied to the skin. The properties of a nanocapsule can be altered by employing various polymers and detergents ^[67]. These nanocapsules are employed in a variety of deodorants due to their biocompatibility ^[68]. Polymeric nanocapsules are used to deliver retinol to the deeper layers of the skin in some cosmetics ^[69]. Nanocapsules also shows to restrict the penetration of UV-filtered octyl methoxycinnamate in faux leather compared to non-nano-size capsules ^[70].

3.5. Solid Lipid Nanostructured Particles (SLN)

Solid lipid NPs are solid nanostructured components at normal room temperature. The structure contains stabilizers and lipid droplets which crystallize to form SLN and are known to protect the skin’s surface ^[71]. Active compounds in SLN-based formulations enter the deeper layers of the skin more easily ^[72]. SLN can also increase skin moisture compared to saline. Other benefits include improved hydration, bioavailability, stability, skin coverage, etc. ^[73]. These are also employed in the production of fragrances and perfumes to ensure the perfume’s long-lasting aroma. Due to UV-resistant characteristic, they are utilized in sunscreen creams to guard against deterioration of the skin ^[74].

3.6. Cubosomes

Cubosomes are self-assembled fluid–crystalline structures which include specified amphiphilic lipids in their arrangement and are organized into three-dimensional ordered bilayers resembling a honeycomb structure ^[75]. When water is combined with a surfactant system and aqueous lipids, the microstructure of cubosomes is generated in a defined ratio ^[76]. The cubic phases have a unique geometry, capable of releasing hydrolyzed active substances, such as medicines and proteins, as well as cosmetic active compounds, in a regulated manner, and they are physiologically friendly ^[77]. Due to their geometry, their surfaces are quite large, and due to low density, these can be readily prepared from very dilute solutions. Due to the high moisture ratio, cubosomes exhibit special features. They have benefits from both polar and nonpolar groups and possess good thermal stability ^[78].

3.7. Dendrimers

The word ‘dendrimer’ is formed from two Greek words, viz., ‘dendron’, which means tree, and ‘meros’, which means portion ^[79]. Dendrimers are monodispersed, monomolecular, hyper branched, treelike structures having a diameter of roughly 20 nm ^[80]. Dendrimers can have monomolecular, monodispersion, or micellar structures. Different functional groups attached are responsible for their functionality ^[81]. These functional groups are associated with different applications like drug transport, catalysis, photo-activity, modulation of molecular weight, size measurement, and rheology ^[82]. Multiple permutations of these components can be employed to create a variety of forms and sizes of product with protected inner cores which are excellent for biological and materials science applications ^[83]. An individual nanostructured material has its specific function and application(s) in different cosmetics.

Basic structures of organic nanostructured particles used in cosmetics industries are displayed in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Basic structures of different organic nanostructured materials used in cosmetics industries.

4. Inorganic Nanostructured Materials in Cosmetics Industries

Inorganic NPs are made up of metal/metal oxides. The different types of inorganic NPs employed in cosmetics industries are shown in Figure 8. Some of the inorganic nanostructured materials and their characteristic properties are discussed here.

Figure 8. Types of inorganic nanostructured particles used in cosmetics.

4.1. Nanostructured Particles of Silver and Gold

Silver and gold NPs are well-known to possess antimicrobial properties. Deodorants, face creams, anti-aging creams, and moisturizers include Ag and Au NPs. Some cosmetics industries report that Ag NPs employed in cosmetics give day-long protection from microorganisms. Ag NPs are employed at an amount of 12% in the composition in most of the nano-cosmetics formulations across the world ^[84]. Similarly, Au NPs possess unique capabilities of drug/medication delivery and discharge, ease of synthesis and functionalization, and are one of the most popular ingredients employed in cosmetics. The functionalization of Au NPs are usually carried out via thiol linkages, which enable easier conjugation with cosmetic components, resulting in enhanced product quality. Au NPs have been reported to be included in toothpaste formulations to provide efficient mouth cleansing ^[85]. Ag NPs’ antimicrobial activity has been attributed to the release of silver ions, and analogous research on nanostructured silver particle based products have been undertaken extensively to harness their unique antibacterial and antifungal capabilities. Similar studies have also been conducted on Au nanostructured particles as well. A TEM image of skin toner containing silver nanostructured particles is shown in Figure 9 ^[86].

Figure 9. TEM image of Ag nanoparticles from TEM in a skin toner ^[86].

4.2. Silica Nanostructured Particles

Several cosmetic sectors have paid close attention to the addition of silica NPs to cosmetic products. Silica NPs have attracted huge attention due to their unique qualities, such as their pleasant touch and ability to encapsulate and entrap lipophilic and hydrophilic molecules to their site of action ^[87]. Furthermore, silane chemistry, adaptability for surface functionalization, low-cost manufacturing, and ease of large-scale synthesis are additional important characteristics. Silica NPs are commonly employed in toothpaste, cosmetics, hair products, deodorants, and skin care. These provide emulsifying, emollient, and water-barrier activities, with the unique potential of improving protection against sunburn. Silica NPs make sunscreen formulations easier to distribute and reduce phototoxicity or deterioration ^[88]. Silica NPs with diameters ranging in size size of 5 and 100 nm are stabilized as nanodispersions and characterized by different microscopic techniques, viz., SEM (Figure 10a–c) and TEM (Figure 10d).

Figure 10. SEM-based characterization of synthetic silica particles (a–c) ^[67]; (d) TEM-based characterization of synthetic silica particles ^[88].

4.3. Titanium Oxide and Zinc Oxide Nanostructured Particles

UV filters made from titanium oxide (TiO₂) and zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs have been effectively integrated into a variety of cosmetic items. ZnO NPs are likely to reflect UVA radiation, whereas TiO₂ NPs are accountable for reflecting UVB rays. When these two oxides are employed together, it enhances effectiveness in terms of protection against sunburn and other desirable properties, viz., transparency, spreadability, and superior texture, without causing skin inflammation ^[89]. Since TiO₂ and ZnO nanostructured particles accumulate on the outer surface of stratum corneum, the UV protection offered by these systems is frequently utilized. Due to its antibacterial characteristics, ZnO has also proven to be a desirable solution in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic sectors. The antibacterial effect of these nanostructured particles is attributed to the generation of ROS and subsequent release of Zn²⁺ ions, which are poisonous to bacteria and cause instability of bacterial cell walls ^[90]. However, the chemicals employed in topical formulations have a significant impact on the efficiency of ZnO NPs since they can mask the surface of the particle and reduce the ZnO antibacterial activity ^[91].

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Cosmeceuticals Market (By Product: Skin Care, Hair Care, Injectable, Others; By Packaging Material: Glass, Plastic, Metal, Others; By Ingredient: Anti-Oxidants, Sunscreens, Botanicals, Peptides & Proteins, Exfoliants, Moisturizers, Retinoids; By Distribution Channel: Online Platforms, Supermarkets and Specialty Stores)—Global Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends, Regional Outlook, and Forecast 2022–2030. Available online: https://www.precedenceresearch.com/cosmeceuticals-market (accessed on 11 March 2023).
Cosmetic Pigments Market (By Elemental Composition: Inorganic Pigments, Organic Pigments; By Application: Facial Makeup, Eye Makeup, Lip Products, Nail Products, Hair Color Products, Special effect & Special Purpose Products, Others; By Type: Special Effect Pigments, Surface Treated Pigments, Nano Pigments, Natural Colorants)—Global Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends, Regional Outlook, and Forecast 2022–2030. Available online: https://www.precedenceresearch.com/cosmetic-pigments-market (accessed on 11 March 2023).
Nanomaterials Market (By Product: Carbon Nanotubes, Titanium Nanoparticles, Silver Nanoparticles, Aluminum Oxide Nanomaterials, Gold (Au), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Platinum (Pt), Nickel (Ni), Antimony Tin Oxide, Bismuth Oxide, Others; By Application: Aeros. Available online: https://www.precedenceresearch.com/nanomaterials-market (accessed on 8 March 2023).
Global Nano Cosmetic Pigments Market by Types (Titanium Dioxide, Zinc Oxide, Carbon Black, Iron Oxide, and Others), Applications (Facial Make-up, Lip Products, Eye Make-Up, Nail Products, Hair Color Products, Special Effect & Special Purpose Products, and Others), Distribution Channels (Online, Supermarkets/Hypermarkets, Specialty Stores, and Others), Age Groups (Teens, Adults, and Seniors), and Regions (Asia Pacific, Europe, North America, Middle East & Africa, and Latin America)—Global Industry Analysis, Growth, Share, Size, Trends, Opportunities, and Forecast From 2023 To 2031. Available online: https://dataintelo.com/report/nano-cosmetic-pigments-market/ (accessed on 11 March 2023).
Inorganic Cosmetic Pigments Market: Information by Type, Application and Region-Forcast Till 2030. Available online: https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/inorganic-cosmetics-pigments-market-10531 (accessed on 8 March 2023).
Global Cosmetic Pigments Market Size By Elemental Composition (Organic , Inorganic , By Product , By Application Facial Make-Up , Eye Makeup, Lip care, Hair Care Products, Nail Care, Others Industry Analysis Report, Country Outlook Application Potential, Price Trends, Competitive Market Share & Forecast, 2020–2026. Available online: https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/cosmetic-pigments-market (accessed on 11 March 2023).
Cosmetics Market (By Category: Skin & sun care products, Hair care products, Deodorants & fragrances, Makeup & color cosmetics; By Gender: Men, Women, Unisex; By Distribution Channel: Hypermarkets/Supermarkets, Specialty Stores, Pharmacies, Online sales channels, Other)—Global Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends, Regional Outlook, and Forecast 2021–2030. Available online: https://www.precedenceresearch.com/cosmetics-market (accessed on 10 March 2023).
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