Welding between Batteries and Busbars for Electric Vehicles

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1		Peilei Zhang	--	2853	2023-08-11 10:28:59	\|
2	references update	Fanny Huang	Meta information modification	2853	2023-08-14 04:45:28	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/coatings13081313

Electric vehicle battery systems are made up of a variety of different materials, each battery system contains hundreds of batteries. There are many parts that need to be connected in the battery system, and welding is often the most effective and reliable connection method. Laser welding has the advantages of non-contact, high energy density, accurate heat input control, and easy automation, which is considered to be the ideal choice for electric vehicle battery manufacturing. In all the production processes of power battery packs, there is a key process, that is, the welding of a single lithium battery and the connector. This is the key to the quality of series and parallel lithium-ion battery cells, that is, the welding of the battery pole and the busbars. The quality of the welding here will directly affect the reliability of the quality of the lithium-ion battery pack used as a power source for electric vehicles.

electric vehicle battery laser welding

1. Introduction

Due to global warming, today’s climate problems are intensifying, and extreme weather is occurring frequently. The main cause of this problem group is greenhouse gas emissions, mainly carbon dioxide (90%), and the transport sector is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), and in 2015, global CO₂ emissions reached 323 billion tons, while transport accounted for 24% of the total emissions. Three quarters of this is contributed by the road component ^[1]. To mitigate climate change, carbon emission laws have been enacted around the world ^[2]^[3]. New energy vehicles (NEV), as an alternative to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV), are rapidly developing in major international automotive markets. China, the United States, Japan, Germany and other countries have restricted the sales of traditional internal combustion engine vehicles at the national level and formulated a series of new policies to encourage the development of new energy vehicles, so as to reduce the use of oil and reduce carbon dioxide emissions ^[4].

The fastest developing new energy vehicles are electric vehicles (EVs), which are powered by power batteries. Lithium-ion battery has become the most important power supply for electric vehicles because of its high energy density, low self-discharge and long life cycle ^[5]^[6]^[7]. Batteries used in electric vehicles are mainly small solid cylindrical batteries, large solid prismatic batteries and large soft bag or polymer batteries ^[8]^[9]^[10]. Battery packs for electric vehicles are usually designed and manufactured in a battery-module-cell structure. The main difference in practice is how to achieve the required battery capacity and power. A small number of large capacity cells can be connected in series. Alternatively, multiple small batteries with small capacity are connected in parallel and then connected in series to form high-capacity modules. These batteries are usually connected by busbars ^[11]. Power batteries usually work in harsh driving environments, such as vibration, high temperature and possible collision. How to securely connect hundreds of connections in battery modules is related to the new performance and safety of the entire battery system. Various bonding techniques, such as laser welding, friction stir welding, tungsten inert gas welding, ultrasonic lead bonding and resistance spot welding, have been used in battery manufacturing ^[8]^[10]^[12]. Ultrasonic welding mainly uses high-frequency vibration, usually 20 kHz or above, to connect materials by forming solid-state bonds under clamping pressure ^[13]. Ultrasonic welding is suitable for the welding of multiple thin foils, dissimilar materials or highly conductive materials. It is mainly used in banded batteries ^[14], and electric vehicle batteries are usually cylindrical or prismatic batteries, which may destroy the integrity of the battery structure under the action of pressure and vibration, so it is not suitable for the welding of electric vehicle batteries ^[8]. The working principle of resistance spot welding is mainly to apply pressure on the contact surface of the workpiece and connect large current to cause partial melting of the workpiece ^[12]. However, the commonly used materials in electric vehicle batteries are aluminum and copper, and aluminum and copper have the characteristics of high electrical and thermal conductivity, so resistance welding is difficult to weld. Laser welding is considered to be the most promising connection method because of its easy automation, high accuracy, small heat-affected zone, non-contact process, high process speed and ease of welding different metals. Laser welding is an efficient and precise welding method using high energy density laser beam as heat source. Due to heat concentration, fast welding speed, small thermal effect, small welding deformation, easy to realize efficient automation and integration ^[15]^[16]^[17], it is more and more widely used in power battery manufacturing.

In addition, the battery connection can be mechanically fastened in a variety of ways, including nut bolts, spring fasteners, screws or fasteners ^[18]. Nut and bolt joints may be either physically distinct nut and bolt assemblies or a threaded feature, for example, electrode and nut. For battery module level connections, nut and bolt joints are mainly limited to prismatic cells. Some special battery modules are not suitable for permanent connection (such as welding) due to the need for battery maintenance, so mechanical nuts and bolts can also be used for connection of special battery systems. At present, battery casings are mainly produced by welding sheets, so some welding defects, such as pores and cracks, are inevitable. Niu et al. ^[19] added high entropy alloy to aluminum powder during additive manufacturing of aluminum, which inhibited the crack generation and improved the strength. Therefore, with the development of laser additive, the battery case may be produced by additive manufacturing in the future.

2. Welding between Batteries and Busbars

In all the production processes of power battery packs, there is a key process, that is, the welding of a single lithium battery and the connector. This is the key to the quality of series and parallel lithium-ion battery cells, that is, the welding of the battery pole and the busbars. The quality of the welding here will directly affect the reliability of the quality of the lithium-ion battery pack used as a power source for electric vehicles. In addition, due to the relative particularity of lithium-ion battery, the welding technology has also put forward high requirements. If the welding strength is weak, the internal resistance of the battery string will increase, thus affecting the normal power supply of the battery string. Excessive welding heat will cause the electrode cover of the battery core to be penetrated, resulting in electrolyte leakage and battery circuit’s short circuit, resulting in battery combustion or even explosion, which seriously threatens the safety of passengers and drivers. It is because of the problems of unreliable welding quality and low welding efficiency in series and parallel welding of power battery pack that the safety and production efficiency of power battery pack are very low. Therefore, in order to ensure the safety of its use and production efficiency, the welding between the battery pole and the busbars must be reliable, which is an important factor to ensure the product yield and service life.

2.1. Aluminum and Steel

Battery busbars are made of two common materials: copper and aluminum. The battery electrode materials are usually steel and aluminum, and the parameters and challenges of laser welding are different. Aluminum has the advantages of good electrical conductivity, light weight and good plasticity, so it is very suitable as a busbar material. The efficient and reliable connection of steel and aluminum can provide huge economic benefits for battery manufacturing.

However, the connection between the aluminum busbars and the steel poles of the battery is challenging because iron and aluminum have great differences in thermal physical properties such as melting point, thermal conductivity and thermal expansion coefficient. In addition, the low solubility between Fe and Al leads to the formation of brittle intermetallic layers where iron and aluminum are metallurgically incompatible, and the resulting fusion welding is prone to the formation of harmful intermetallic compounds (IMCs). The formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) has been shown to cause a variety of welding defects, such as microcracks and pores ^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]. The chemical composition, crystal structure, hardness and Gibbs free energy of various IMCs formed in Fe–Al binary system are shown in Table 1 ^[25]^[26]^[27]. Fe₂Al₅, Fe₄Al₁₃ andFeAl₂ are Al-rich phases, and FeAl and Fe₃Al are Fe-rich phases. As can be seen from Table 1, aluminum-rich IMCs have stronger hardness and brittleness than iron-rich IMCs, so cracks and other defects are more likely to occur between welded joints. The iron-rich IMCs have better toughness and ductility, which can reduce the generation of cracks. However, in terms of Gibbs free energy, the formation of the Al-rich phase is thermodynamically more favorable to the formation of the Fe-rich phase. Fe₂Al₅ is thermodynamically more stable, forming first, followed by Fe₄Al₁₃, FeAl₂, FeAl, and FeAl₃ ^[28]. IMCs are usually resistive, and too much IMCs will increase the internal resistance of the battery system, resulting in more Joule heat generated during the charging and discharging process of the battery system, affecting the life of the battery system. Therefore, the generation of IMC phase in the weld tissue should be controlled as much as possible during the welding process.

Table 1. Fe–Al IMC properties.

Phases	Al at%	Hardness, HV	Crystal Structure	ΔG (KJ mol⁻¹)
Fe₂Al₅	70–73	1000–1100	orthorhombic	−19.64
Fe₄Al₁₃/FeAl₃	74.5–76.6	820–980	BC monoclinic	−22.87
FeAl2	66–66.9	1000–1050	triclinic	−17.0
FeAl	23–55	400–520	Simple cubic (B2 type)	−11.09
Fe₃Al	23–34	250–350	FCC	−4.83

Reviewing the research in recent years, the laser welding of aluminum and steel has made great technical progress, but there is still a distance from the actual large-scale wide application, mainly because the mechanical properties of the joint are still insufficient. Progress has been made in process parameters and welding methods, but the formation of intermetallic compounds still needs to be solved, and there are other welding defects that need to be solved, such as pores and cracks. Table 2 summarizes the research on laser welding of aluminum and steel dissimilar metals.

Table 2. Summary of research conducted on laser beam welding of steel and aluminum.

No.	Materials	Optimum Laser Parameters	Main Outcomes	Intermetallics	Ref. (year)
1	1060 Al 316L stainless steel	Power: 285 W Speed: 4 mm·s⁻¹	The mechanical properties of the joint are related to the penetration depth	Not reported	^[29] (2016)
2	5754 Al 301 stainless steel	Power: 2 kW Speed: 1.4 m·min	Applying magnetic field can reduce grain size and stabilize weld quality	Fe₂Al₅ FeAl₃	^[30] (2016)
3	Low carbon steel st14 5754 Al	Power: 200 W Peak power: 1.43 kWSpeed: 5 mm/s	Increasing pulse time, pulse peak power and overlapping factor will result in the formation of more intermetallic compounds in the weld	Fe₂Al₅ FeAl₃ FeAl₂	^[31] (2010)
4	201 stainless steel 5052 Al	Not reported	The addition of nickel interlayer helps to improve the metallurgical reaction of aluminum and iron, forming Al₀.₉Ni₁.₁ to improve the mechanical properties of the weld	Fe₂Al₅ FeAl₃ Al₀.₉Ni₁.₁	^[32] (2012)
5	Press-hardened steel 5052 Al	Power: 1.2 kW Speed: 12 mm/s	Using laser offset welding can improve the mechanical properties of weld	Fe₂Al₅ Fe₄Al₁₃	^[33] (2020)
6	310S stainless steel 6061 Al	Power: 2.4 kW Speed: 1.5 m/min	Stainless steel surface helps to improve weld quality with laser cleaning before welding	Not reported	^[34] (2021)
7	Hilumin steel 1050 Al	Power: 600 W Speed: 60 mm/s	With the increase in laser swing amplitude, the depth of weld decreases linearly, and the severity of weld cracking decreases significantly	Fe₂Al₅ Fe₄Al₁₃ FeAl₂	^[35] (2022)
8	DC04 steel 6016-T4 Al	Power: 2 kW Speed: 1 m/min	The strength of the assemblies is shown to increase linearly with the reaction layer width	Not reported	^[36] (2008)
9	H220YD 6061 Al	Power: 2600 W Speed: 1 m/min	By laser filling wire welding, the fused aluminum alloy and the filling wire can be brazed to galvanized solid steel	Al₈Fe₂Si Al₁₃Fe₄ Al₂Fe	^[37] (2013)
10	DP590 6061-T6 Al	Power: 2 kW Speed: 0.5 m/min	The joint produced with the AlSi5 filler metal had the highest tensile strength and largest fracture displacement.	Fe₂Al₅ FeAl₃ Fe₂Al₈Si Fe(Al,Si)₃	^[38] (2018)

2.2. Copper and Aluminum

Due to the differences in the melting point, thermal conductivity and thermal expansion of the two metals, the welding of copper–aluminum joints poses a major challenge ^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43]. Table 3 shows the main intermetallic compounds that can be formed between Cu and Al. Cu and Al in the welding process can form Cu₂Al, Cu₄Al₃, CuAl, Cu₉Al₄ and other intermetallic compounds ^[44]. The formation of these intermetallic compounds will greatly affect the microstructure and mechanical properties of the weld between Cu and Al ^[40]^[45]^[46]^[47]^[48]. Heideman et Al. ^[45] found that Cu and AL were welded with friction stir welding. With friction stir welding, which had the characteristics of low heat input, various intermetallic compounds would be produced in the welded joints. Abbasiet al. ^[47] found when welding Cu and Al using cold roll welding that although various intermetallic compounds such as Cu₃Al, Cu₄Al₃, CuAl and CuAl₂ existed in the welded joints, the growth rate of these intermetallic compounds was lower than that of friction stir welding. Laser welding has the characteristics of high energy density, fast welding speed and narrow heat-affected zone, which can further reduce the generation of intermetallic compounds. Moreover, when welding Cu and Al, filling silver, nickel, tin and other filler materials between the joints can also effectively reduce the formation of brittle phases ^[40]^[41]^[42].

Table 3. Properties of important intermetallics between Al and Cu.

Phase	Cu Content (at.%)	Structure	Microhardness (HV)	Density (g/cm³)	Specific Resistance (μΩ cm)
CuAl₂	33	Body-centered tetragonal	630	4.34	8
CuAl	51	Body-centered orthorhombic	905	5.13	11.4
Cu₄Al₃	55.5	Monoclinic	930	NA	12.2
Cu₉Al₄	66	Body-centered cubic	770	6.43	14.2

At present, the main research direction of welding between aluminum and copper has been the optimization of process parameters and the use of interlayer, and the subsequent research can add beam oscillation. Although the optimization of process parameters has yielded preliminary results, the potential formation of intermetallic compounds still needs further research. Table 4 summarizes the current research on aluminum and copper dissimilar laser welding.

Table 4. Summary of research conducted on laser beam welding of steel and aluminum.

No.	Materials	Optimum Laser Parameters	Main Outcomes	Intermetallics	Ref. (Year)
1	Cu99.5% AA 1050	Power: 1600 W Speed: 30 mm/s	The greater the heat input, the more intermetallic compounds are generated. The resistance decreases as the welding speed decreases.	Al₄Cu₉ Al₂Cu	^[49] (2022)
2	Cu99.9% Al99.9%	Power: 2000 W Speed: 400 mm/s	The fracture after welding is mainly on the copper side.	CuAl₂	^[50] (2022)
3	Cu 110-H00 Al 3003-H14	Power: 500 W Speed: 1 m/min	Adding tin alloy foil as interlayer can improve the mechanical properties of weld.	Not reported	^[51] (2011)
4	T2 Cu 1060 Al	Power: 1450 W Speed: 100 mm/s	The microstructure of the subeutectic zone will greatly affect the shear resistance of the joint.	CuAl CuAl₂	^[52] (2014)
5	Cu99.57% A1050 Al	Power: 1 Kw Speed: 10 m/min	Increasing the welding speed helps to reduce the content of intermetallic compounds in the weld.	CuAl CuAl₂	^[40] (2013)
6	Oxygen-free Cu 4047 Al	Not reported	Controlling the melting ratio of metals is an important factor for defect-free welding of dissimilar metals.	Not reported	^[48] (2004)
7	Pure Cu Pure Al	Not reported	The aluminum filler alloy AlSi12 produces a more uniform elemental mixture and a significantly enhanced ductility.	Not reported	^[53] (2011)

2.3. Copper and Steel

In the welding of electric vehicle batteries, there are many types of welding between copper and steel, and Table 5 shows the room temperature properties of copper and iron. From the table, it can be seen that there are significant differences in the physical properties of copper and iron, especially the differences in melting temperature and thermal conductivity, making welding the two metals challenging ^[54]. In the Fe and Cu phase diagrams, there is a wide metastable miscibility gap at high temperatures ^[55]. In laser welding of steel and copper, liquid phase separation is a common feature due to the separation of undercooled Fe–Cu liquid into droplets of iron and copper ^[56]. Another major problem is that hot cracks appear in the welding zone or the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the steel due to the penetration of Cu into the grain boundary ^[57].

Table 5. Summary of the room temperature properties of Al, Cu, Fe and Ni.

Metal	Melting Temperature (K)	Boiling Temperature (K)	Density (Kg m⁻³)	Thermal Conductivity (W m⁻¹ K⁻¹)	Thermal Expansion Coefficient (10⁶K⁻¹)
Fe	1809	3133	7870	78	12.1
Al	933	2739	2700	238	23.5
Cu	1356	2833	8930	398	17
Ni	1728	3188	8900	89	13.3

Welding of butt joints of copper and steel has been studied. However, further studies of the microstructure of the weld zone and the interaction between the two materials are needed. Lap joints suitable for battery welding need to be paid more attention, and a sandwich can be added when welding. Table 6 summarizes the studies conducted on different laser welding of steel and copper.

Table 6. Summary of research conducted on laser beam welding of steel and copper.

No.	Materials	Optimum Laser Parameters	Main Outcomes	Intermetallics	Ref. (Year)
1	304L stainless steel ETP Cu	Power: 1000 W Speed: 300 mm/min	A defect-free bimetallic joint between Cu and SS can be obtained by laser beam welding technique with fusion welding mode.	Not reported	^[58] (2019)
2	201 stainless steel T2 Cu	Not reported	Welding of copper/steel when welding—brazing and fusion welding depends on the welding parameters.	Not reported	^[59] (2013)
3	304 stainless steel T2 Cu	Power: 4 kW Speed: 3 m/min	Adding beam oscillation in laser welding can refine grain and enhance weld mechanical properties.	Not reported	^[60] (2022)
4	316L stainless steel CW Cu	Not reported	Excessive laser power can lead to the formation of thermal cracks.	Not reported	^[61] (2018
5	304 stainless steel T2 Cu	Not reported	The susceptibility to HAZ liquation cracking can be effectively lowered by controlling the heat input during laser welding.	Cu₄₀Fe₆₀ Cu_xFe_1-x	^[62] (2020)
6	316 stainless steel oxygen-free Cu	Not reported	By adjusting welding parameters, weld defects such as shrinkage, porosity, solidification cracks, etc., can be eliminated.	Not reported	^[63] (2004)
7	Steel-Hilumin Cu	Power: 60 W Speed: 500 mm/min	Mechanical strength of the joint is highly correlated with electrical resistance and corresponding temperature rise at the joint.	Not reported	^[15] (2019)

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Junbo Feng

Peilei Zhang

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Haichuan Shi

Qinghua Lu

Zhenyu Liu

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Tianzhu Sun

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Qingzhao Wang

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Update Date: 14 Aug 2023

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