Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Vijayakumar Shanmugam
 -- 2057 2023-06-03 20:23:32 |
2 Format correct
Wendy Huang
 Meta information modification 2057 2023-06-05 09:59:28 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?
Send video materials Upload full video

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Mallareddy, M.; Thirumalaikumar, R.; Balasubramanian, P.; Naseeruddin, R.; Nithya, N.; Mariadoss, A.; Eazhilkrishna, N.; Choudhary, A.K.; Deiveegan, M.; Subramanian, E.; et al. Best Management Practices and Water Use Efficiency. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/45165 (accessed on 01 May 2024).
Mallareddy M, Thirumalaikumar R, Balasubramanian P, Naseeruddin R, Nithya N, Mariadoss A, et al. Best Management Practices and Water Use Efficiency. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/45165. Accessed May 01, 2024.
Mallareddy, Maduri, Ramasamy Thirumalaikumar, Padmaanaban Balasubramanian, Ramapuram Naseeruddin, Narayanaswamy Nithya, Arulanandam Mariadoss, Narayanasamy Eazhilkrishna, Anil Kumar Choudhary, Murugesan Deiveegan, Elangovan Subramanian, et al. "Best Management Practices and Water Use Efficiency" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/45165 (accessed May 01, 2024).
Mallareddy, M., Thirumalaikumar, R., Balasubramanian, P., Naseeruddin, R., Nithya, N., Mariadoss, A., Eazhilkrishna, N., Choudhary, A.K., Deiveegan, M., Subramanian, E., Padmaja, B., & Vijayakumar, S. (2023, June 03). Best Management Practices and Water Use Efficiency. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/45165
Mallareddy, Maduri, et al. "Best Management Practices and Water Use Efficiency." Encyclopedia. Web. 03 June, 2023.
Best Management Practices and Water Use Efficiency
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/w15101802

Rice is a water-guzzling crop cultivated mostly through inefficient irrigation methods which leads to low water use efficiency and many environmental problems. Additionally, the export of virtual water through rice trading and the looming water crisis poses significant threats to the sustainability of rice production and food security. There are several alternative rice production methods to improve water use efficiency. These include aerobic rice, direct-seeded rice (DSR), alternate wetting and drying (AWD), saturated soil culture (SSC), drip-irrigated rice, a system of rice intensification (SRI), and smart irrigation with sensors and the Internet of Things (IoT). However, each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, drip-irrigated rice and IoT-based automated irrigation are not feasible for poor farmers due to the high production costs associated with specialized machinery and tools. Similarly, aerobic rice, drip-irrigated rice, and the SRI are labor-intensive, making them unsuitable for areas with a shortage of labor. On the other hand, DSR is suitable for labor-scarce areas, provided herbicides are used to control weeds.

water use efficiency nutrient management weed control seed priming

1. Introduction

Water use efficiency is a function of yield and evaporation. Any agronomic management practices that increase the grain yield will also increase the WUE. Along with these improved irrigation methods, smart irrigation technologies the adoption of other improved agronomic management practices is highly essential to achieve higher yield potential. Agronomic management practices such as the optimum time of sowing, adequate plant population establishment, timely control of weeds, balance and optimum fertilization, the proper control of insect pests and disease, and harvest are highly important to increase WUE. Additionally, various agronomic practices, including crop rotation, water conservation through minimum- or no-tillage, the use of plastic film or straw mulching, regulated deficit irrigation, fertigation, anti-transpirants, and soil amendments, can be employed to enhance soil water-holding capacity and WUE of rice-based cropping systems [1]. Engineering approaches such as rational exploitation of surface and groundwater resources, rainwater harvesting and storage for life-saving irrigation and groundwater recharge, the utilization of recycled sewage water or marginal quality saline water, the modernization of canal irrigation systems, low-pressure pipe conveyance, laser-controlled land leveling technology [1], improved surface irrigation by shortening or narrowing borders or furrows, and sprinkler irrigation implementation are highly recommended to increase water use efficiency [2].

2. Balanced and Efficient Nutrient Management

Vijayakumar et al. (2021) demonstrated that the application of nutrients based on the 4R principle of nutrient stewardship (right dose, right time, right place, and right method) led to increased water use efficiency in aerobic rice systems [3]. A supply of 100% of the recommended dose of fertilizer through drip fertigation was found optimum for higher yield and WUE [4]. Several new-age fertilizer carriers such as nano fertilizers, slow-release fertilizers, and organic nitrification inhibitors were found to be effective in reducing nutrient loss and increasing the recovery efficiency of nutrient and crop yield [5]. Similarly, Jinger et al. (2020) reported that the application of silicon fertilizer increased the yield and water use efficiency of rice [6][7]. Farmers can utilize tools such as decision support systems [8][9], riceNxpert [10], and other Android-based applications to adopt site-specific nutrient management in rice cultivation [11]. Nitrogen is a major key nutrient to rice, and response to nitrogen application is reported in all the rice growing ecosystems. The nitrogen use efficiency in rice is very low (~30%) and improving nutrient use efficiency directly increases rice yield and WUE. Subramanian et al. (2020) recommended the application of 175 kg N/ha in four equal splits at 10–12 days after emergence, at active tillering, panicle-initiation, and flowering for sustaining the aerobic rice yield [12]. Similarly, two to three split applications of the recommended dose of potassium were found to be more economical in the aerobic rice system [13]. In addition to macronutrient application, the need-based use of secondary micronutrients is also equally important. The application of iron foliar spray is important in DSR and aerobic rice, especially in the early stage of the crop to overcome iron deficiency [14]. Under surface drip irrigation with zinc fertigation (8 kg/ha), rice crops need 1246 L of water to produce one kg of rice compared to 4263 L under conventional transplanted rice with 25 kg Zn/ha application [15]. The water productivity is highest (1.13 g kg−1) in nitrogen-fertilized plots in comparison to no nitrogen (0.62 g kg−1) under aerobic rice [16].

3. Efficient Weed Control

As water scarcity becomes more acute, rice farmers may face limitations on the amount of water available for rice production and may not be able to rely on continuous flooding as a method for weed control in the future [17]. Though flooding helps in eliminating grass and sedges in rice cultivation, it failed to control broadleaf weeds [18]. Weed menace is the major problem in the SRI, DSR, aerobic rice, and drip-irrigated rice [14]. The occurrence of non-aquatic weeds increased in these systems due to the absence of flooding. The time of weed removal is more important in these methods. Early control of weeds helps with better crop establishment and turns crop weed competition in favor of rice plants [19]. The use of herbicides ensures that weeds are controlled at the time of germination. In direct-seeded rice systems, the use of a sequential approach consisting of a pre-emergence herbicide followed by a post-emergence herbicide was found to be more effective and cost-efficient than traditional hand weeding [20][21][22]. Several improved farm tools and implements were available for weed control in the SRI, line-sown DSR, and line-transplanted rice. The use of these tools improves soil aeration, root growth, and yield, in addition to better weed control [23][24].
DSR can reduce GHG emissions, improve soil quality, and save money on labor, water, and energy. However, weeds constitute a significant problem that could result in the total failure of the rice crop. To increase output and optimize resource utilization, effective weed management is vital. Compared to other weed control strategies, herbicides are a more efficient and cost-effective solution in the case of DSR. The sequential use of pendimethalin 1000 g/ha as a pre-emergence herbicide applied 1 day after sowing and penoxsulam + cyhalofop-butyl 130 g/ha as a post-emergence herbicide applied 25 days after sowing significantly increased grain yield, irrigation water productivity, and total water productivity by 378.9%, 378%, and 380%, respectively, compared to the unweeded control [25]. Effective weed control, which reduces competition for growth resources, such as water and nutrients, is essential for maximizing water use efficiency in direct-seeded aerobic rice systems. In aerobic rice, the herbigation with pretilachlor + bensulfuran methyl as pre-emergence, and bispyribac sodium as post-emergence at 20 days after sowing, resulted in higher water use efficiency (153.45 kg/ha cm) compared to the weedy check (7.07 kg/ha cm) [26]. This improvement was attributed to increased grain yield due to better weed management in the weed-free and herbigation treatments.

4. Seed Treatment

Seed priming is a pre-sowing seed treatment that helps rice seeds overcome various biotic and abiotic stressors, leading to improved seedling growth and an increase in crop productivity. Based on the substance/material used for priming, it is classified into hydro-priming (water), osmo-priming (osmotic agent), halo-priming (use of specific salts for priming), bio-priming (microbial bio-agents), and hormo-priming (plant growth regulators). Priming does not allow radical protrusion through the seed coat but allows the seeds to imbibe water and stay ready for quick germination. Seed priming has been shown to enhance plant germination even in adverse soil and weather conditions. It reduces the average time for seeds to sprout and increases the energy used for germination, resulting in a higher germination index and improved seedling vigor. This helps to ensure more robust plant growth and development, even in challenging environments [27]. The reduced imbibition lag time [28], osmotic adjustment [29], accumulation of germination-enhancing metabolites [30], enzyme activation [31], and metabolic repair during imbibition [32] ensure higher and uniform germination of primed seeds. Rice cultivation is possible with limited irrigation levels, even as low as −15 kPa and −30 kPa. In areas where it is challenging to maintain frequent irrigation and soil water levels drop below −15 kPa, seed priming with Trichoderma is advised, as this technique can result in a significant boost in grain yield, with an increase of 68% at −15 kPa and 77% at −30 kPa, as well as an improvement in water productivity, with a rise of 70% at −15 kPa and 66% at −30 kPa, compared to non-primed seeds [33].
The use of potassium nitrate as a seed priming agent is another promising option, especially when soil water levels fall below −15 kPa. This substance has the potential to improve seed performance in these challenging conditions. Seed priming with moringa leaf extracts (3.3%) or CaCl2 (2.2%) improved the direct-seeded rice performance when practiced with AWD irrigation [34]. According to research by Hussain et al. (2016), chemical priming with selenium and hormonal priming with salicylic acid were found to be more effective at mitigating the effects of chilling stress in rice seedlings [35]. These priming methods improved seedling performance and tolerance by enhancing starch metabolism, increasing respiration rates, reducing lipid peroxidation, and strengthening the plant’s antioxidant defense system. Seed priming can be a useful approach to improve rice germination and stand establishment in the rabi season, particularly in the eastern part of India where low temperatures can cause poor germination. Additionally, Dhillon et al. (2021) found that halo-priming with 2.0% potassium nitrate and hormo-priming with 50 ppm GA3 had the potential to improve rice crop establishment and yield by 7–11% in both conventional and soil mulch DSR systems [36]. The higher yields were attributed to faster and more successful germination and crop emergence, improved root growth, and enhanced yield attributes. The priming treatments also activate important enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase, and increase the accumulation of glutathione and free proline in rice seedlings, which protect the seedlings from chilling-induced oxidative stress.

5. The Water Footprint as an Indicator of the Best Rice Production Method

The water footprint (WF) is a comprehensive indicator of the environmental impact of rice cultivation and can help identify more sustainable and efficient irrigation practices to reduce water use and improve water quality. The WF in rice cultivation refers to the amount of water used for irrigating rice fields throughout its growth cycle, as well as the amount of water required to dilute pollutants, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, that may be released into the environment due to agricultural activities. It includes both the direct water consumption by the crop through evapotranspiration (green water) and the water used for irrigation (blue water), as well as the water required to dilute and transport pollutants in the environment (grey water). The worldwide WF of rice production is estimated to be 1308 Mm3 per year, with 707 Mm3 per year attributed to evaporation, of which 332 Mm3 per year is attributed to green water use and 374 Mm3 per year to blue water use. Furthermore, 64 Mm3 per year is related to pollution, while 538 Mm3 per year is lost through percolation and residual soil moisture after harvest [37]. In Thailand and Malaysia, the WF of rice cultivation was estimated to be 1665 m3 per ton and 2500 L/kg based on life cycle assessment, respectively [38][39]. Wu et al. compared the WF of paddy rice production under common flood irrigation (CFI) and water-saving irrigation (SWI) in Nanjing, East China, and found that the WF was 1000 m3/t for CFI and 910 m3/t for SWI, with a 9% reduction in WF for SWI compared to CFI. SWI reduced irrigation during non-critical periods, shifting the ratio of blue to green water fluxes in field water and using green water preferentially [40]. Another study evaluated the WF of rice production in the Walawe irrigation scheme of Sri Lanka over three years. Results showed that the average annual WFblue was found to be 2.27 m3/kg, which is higher than global and national WFtot, indicating that irrigation water usage in the area may be significantly higher due to relatively higher evapotranspiration in the area, suggesting the need to reduce excess water usage by shifting irrigation practices from flooded irrigation to the SRI [41]. In India, the WF of rice in 2014 was found to vary with region. Among the five rice-growing regions (south, north, east, west, and northeast), the western region showed the highest WF of 3.52 m3 per kilogram of rice due to the region’s high irrigation water usage [42]. This study also recommended large-scale promotion and adoption of water-saving irrigation techniques such as SRI, aerobic rice, AWD, DSR, etc., to reduce blue WF. Another interesting study in Indonesia compared the WF of conventional rice with organic rice cultivation, and the result showed that organic rice cultivation saves up to 52.8% of the WF compared to conventional flooded rice, demonstrating the potential of organic farming practices to promote sustainable water use in agriculture in Indonesia [43].

References

  1. Nayak, A.K.; Chatterjee, D.; Tripathi, R.; Shahid, M.; Vijayakumar, S.; Satapathy, B.S.; Kumar, A.; Mohanty, S.; Bhattacharyya, P.; Mishra, P.; et al. Climate Smart Agricultural Technologies for Rice Production System in Odisha; ICAR-National Rice Research Institute: Cuttack, India, 2020; pp. 1–336. ISBN 81-88409-14-6.
  2. Du, T.S.; Kang, S.Z.; Zhang, X.Y.; Zhang, J.H. China’s food security is threatened by the unsustainable use of water resources in North and Northwest China. Food Energy Secur. 2014, 3, 7–18.
  3. Vijayakumar, S.; Kumar, D.; Jinger, D.; Bussa, B.; Panda, B.B. 4R nutrient stewardship based potassium fertilization for dry-direct seeded rice-wheat cropping system. Indian Farm. 2021, 71, 22–25.
  4. Ramesh, T.; Rathika, S.; Subramanian, E.; Ravi, V. Effect of drip fertigation on the productivity of hybrid rice. Int. J. Agric. Environ. Biot. 2020, 13, 219–225.
  5. Gobinath, R.; Manasa, V.; Surekha, K.; Vijayakumar, S.; Bandeppa, G.S. New age nutrient carriers for rice based cropping systems. Indian Farm. 2021, 71, 12–15.
  6. Jinger, D.; Devi, M.T.; Dhar, S.; Dass, A.; Sharma, V.K.; Vijayakumar, S.; Joshi, E.; Jatav, H.S.; Singh, N. Silicon application mitigates abiotic stresses in rice: A review. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 2020, 90, 2043–2050.
  7. Jinger, D.; Shiva, D.; Vijayakumar, S.; Pande, V.C.; Vijaysinha, K.; Jat, R.A.; Dinesh, D. Silicon nutrition of graminaceous crops. Indian Farm. 2020, 70, 18–21.
  8. Kumar, V.; Singh, A.K.; Jat, S.L.; Parihar, C.M.; Pooniya, V.; Sharma, S.; Singh, B. Influence of site-specific nutrient management on growth and yield of maize (Zea mays) under conservation tillage. Indian J. Agron. 2014, 59, 657–660.
  9. Kumar, V.; Singh, A.K.; Jat, S.L.; Parihar, C.M.; Pooniya, V.; Singh, B.; Sharma, S. Precision nutrient and conservation agriculture practices for enhancing productivity, profitability, nutrient-use efficiencies and soil nutrient status of maize (Zea mays) hybrids. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 2015, 85, 926–930.
  10. Kumar, R.M.; Padmaja, K.; Subbaiah, S.V. Tools for plant-based N management in different rice varieties grown in southern India. Int. Rice Res. Notes 1999, 24, 23–25.
  11. Vijayakumar, S.; Choudhary, A.K.; Deiveegan, M.; Thirumalaikumar, R.; Mahender Kumar, R. Android Based Mobile Application for Rice Crop Management. Chron. Bioresour. Manag. 2022, 6, 19–24.
  12. Subramanian, E.; Aathithyan, C.; Raghavendran, V.B.; Vijayakumar, S. Optimization of nitrogen fertilization for aerobic rice (Oryza sativa). Indian J. Agron. 2020, 65, 180–184.
  13. Vijayakumar, S.; Kumar, D.; Shivay, Y.S.; Anand, A.; Saravanane, P.; Poornima, S.; Jinger, D.; Singh, N. Effect of potassium fertilization on growth indices, yield attributes and economics of dry direct seeded basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.). Oryza 2019, 56, 214–220.
  14. Nawaz, A.; Rehman, A.U.; Rehman, A.; Ahmad, S.; Siddique, K.M.; Farooq, M. Increasing sustainability for rice production systems. J. Cereal Sci. 2022, 103, 103400.
  15. Singh, P.K.; Srivastava, P.C.; Sangavi, R.; Gunjan, P.; Sharma, V. Rice water management under drip irrigation: An effective option for high water productivity and efficient zinc applicability. Pantnagar J. Res. 2019, 17, 19–25.
  16. Grassi, C.; Bouman, B.A.; Castañeda, A.R.; Manzelli, M.; Vecchio, V. Aerobic rice: Crop performance and water use efficiency. J. Agric. Environ. Int. Dev. 2009, 103, 259–270.
  17. Chauhan, B.S. Weed Management in Direct-Seeded Rice Systems; International Rice Research Institute: Los Baños, Philippines, 2012; p. 20.
  18. Samoy-Pascual, K.; Martin, E.C.; Ariola, C.P. Effects of water and weed management on the weed density, grain yield, and water productivity of wet-seeded rice. Philipp. J. Sci. 2020, 149, 139–149.
  19. Ramesh, K.; Vijaya Kumar, S.; Upadhyay, P.K.; Chauhan, B.S. Revisiting the concept of the critical period of weed control. J. Agric. Sci. 2022, 159, 636–642.
  20. Saravanane, P.; Pavithra, M.; Vijayakumar, S. Weed management in direct seeded rice– Impact of biotic constraint and its sustainable management options. Indian Farm. 2021, 71, 61–64.
  21. Pooja, K.; Saravanane, P.; Sridevi, V.; Nadaradjan, S.; Vijayakumar, S. Effect of cultivars and weed management practices on productivity, profitability and energetics of dry direct-seeded rice. Oryza 2021, 58, 442–447.
  22. Saha, S.; Munda, S.; Satapathy, B.S.; Vijayakumar, S.; Poonam, A. Weed Management Technology for Rice; Technical Bulletin No 165; National Rice Research Institute: Cuttack, India, 2021.
  23. Duttarganvi, S.; Kumar, R.M.; Desai, B.K.; Pujari, B.T.; Tirupataiah, K.; Koppalkar, B.G.; Umesh, M.R.; Naik, M.K.; Reddy, K.Y. Influence of establishment methods, irrigation water levels and weed management practices on growth and yield of rice (Oryza sativa). Indian J. Agron. 2016, 61, 174–178.
  24. Vijayakumar, S.; Subramanian, E.; Saravanane, P.; Gobinath, R.; Sanjoy, S. Farm mechanisation in rice cultivation: Present status, bottlenecks and potential. Indian Farm. 2021, 71, 4–7.
  25. Sen, S.; Kaur, R.; Das, T.K.; Raj, R.; Shivay, Y.S. Impacts of herbicides on weeds, water productivity, and nutrient-use efficiency in dry direct-seeded rice. Paddy Water Environ. 2021, 19, 227–238.
  26. Jagadish, T.; Rohini, N.; Prakash, G. Water Use Efficiency and Economics of Weed Management Practices Under Drip Irrigated Aerobic Rice. Adv. Life Sci. 2015, 5, 3410–3415.
  27. Mahajan, G.; Sarlach, R.S.; Japinder, S.; Gill, M.S. Seed priming effects on germination, growth and yield of dry direct-seeded rice. J. Crop Improv. 2011, 25, 409–417.
  28. Brocklehurst, P.A.; Dearman, J. Interaction between seed priming treatments and nine seed lots of carrot, celery and onion II. Seedling emergence and plant growth. Ann. Appl. Biol. 2008, 102, 583–593.
  29. Bradford, K.J. Manipulation of seed water relations via osmotic priming to improve germination under stress conditions. Hortic. Sci. 1986, 21, 1105–1112.
  30. Hussain, S.; Zheng, M.; Khan, F.; Khaliq, A.; Fahad, S.; Peng, S.; Huang, J.; Cui, K.; Nie, L. Benefits of rice seed priming are off set permanently by prolonged storage and the storage conditions. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 8101.
  31. Lee, S.S.; Kim, J.H. Total sugars, a-amylase activity, and emergence after priming of normal and aged rice seeds. Korean J. Crop. Sci. 2000, 45, 108–111.
  32. Farooq, M.; Basra, S.M.A.; Hafeez, K. Seed invigoration by osmo hardening in coarse and fine rice. Seed Sci. Technol. 2006, 34, 181–187.
  33. Das, D.; Basar, N.U.; Ullah, H.; Attia, A.; Salin, K.R.; Datta, A. Growth, yield and water productivity of rice as influenced by seed priming under alternate wetting and drying irrigation. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 2021, 68, 1515–1529.
  34. Rehman, H.; Kamran, M.; Basra, S.M.; Afzal, I.; Farooq, M. Influence of seed priming on performance and water productivity of direct seeded rice in alternating wetting and drying. Rice Sci. 2015, 22, 189–196.
  35. Hussain, S.; Khan, F.; Hussain, H.A.; Nie, L. Physiological and biochemical mechanisms of seed priming-induced chilling tolerance in rice cultivars. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 116.
  36. Dhillon, B.S.; Kumar, V.; Sagwal, P.; Kaur, N.; Singhm Mangat, G.; Singh, S. Seed Priming with Potassium Nitrate and Gibberellic Acid Enhances the Performance of Dry Direct Seeded Rice (Oryza sativa L.) in North-Western India. Agronomy 2021, 11, 849.
  37. Chapagain, A. Water footprint of rice: Quantifying the rainbow of virtual water fluxes related to rice trade. In Proceedings of the 4th Marcelino Botín Foundation Water Workshop: Re-thinking paradigms: Water and Food Security. 2009. Available online: https://rac.es/ficheros/doc/00740.pdf (accessed on 28 February 2023).
  38. Mungkung, R.; Gheewala, S.H.; Silalertruksa, T.; Dangsiri, S. Water footprint inventory database of Thai rice farming for water policy decisions and water scarcity footprint label. Int. J. LCA 2019, 24, 2128–2139.
  39. Rusli, N.M.; Noor, Z.Z.; Taib, S.M.; Din, M.F.B.M.; Krishnan, S.l. Water–Energy–Food Nexus Components: Assessment of Water Footprint in Rice Production in Malaysia Using the LCA Approach. Trans. Indian Natl. Acad. Eng. 2023, 8, 113–125.
  40. Wu, M.; Li, Y.; Xiao, J.; Guo, X.; Cao, X. Blue, green, and grey water footprints assessment for paddy irrigation-drainage system. J. Environ. Manage. 2022, 302 Pt B, 114116.
  41. Janani, H.K.; Abeysiriwardana, H.D.; Rathnayake, U.; Sarukkalige, R. Water Footprint Assessment for Irrigated Paddy Cultivation in Walawe Irrigation Scheme, Sri Lanka. Hydrology 2022, 9, 210.
  42. Nayak, A.K.; Tripathi, R.; Debnath, M.; Swain, C.K.; Dhal, B.; Vijaykumar, S.; Nayak, A.D.; Mohanty, S.; Shahid, M.; Kumar, A.; et al. Carbon and water footprint of rice, wheat & maize crop productions in India. Pedosphere 2022.
  43. Johannes, H.P.; Priadi, C.R.; Herdiansyah, H.; Novalia, I. Water footprint saving through organic rice commodity. In AIP Conference Proceedings; AIP Publishing LLC.: Melville, NY, USA, 2020; Volume 2255, p. 040002.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Water Resources
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Maduri Mallareddy
,
Ramasamy Thirumalaikumar
,
Padmaanaban Balasubramanian
,
Ramapuram Naseeruddin
,
Narayanaswamy Nithya
,
Arulanandam Mariadoss
,
Narayanasamy Eazhilkrishna
,
Anil Kumar Choudhary
,
Murugesan Deiveegan
,
Elangovan Subramanian
,
Bhimireddy Padmaja
,
Shanmugam Vijayakumar
View Times: 248
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 05 Jun 2023
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Feedback