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Xie, H.; Li, L.G.; Ng, P.; Liu, F. Application of Waste Powder in Pervious Concrete. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43571 (accessed on 18 May 2024).
Xie H, Li LG, Ng P, Liu F. Application of Waste Powder in Pervious Concrete. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43571. Accessed May 18, 2024.
Xie, Hui-Zhu, Leo Gu Li, Pui-Lam Ng, Feng Liu. "Application of Waste Powder in Pervious Concrete" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43571 (accessed May 18, 2024).
Xie, H., Li, L.G., Ng, P., & Liu, F. (2023, April 27). Application of Waste Powder in Pervious Concrete. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43571
Xie, Hui-Zhu, et al. "Application of Waste Powder in Pervious Concrete." Encyclopedia. Web. 27 April, 2023.
Application of Waste Powder in Pervious Concrete
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su15076105

According to the literature, the annual global consumption of concrete had reached 25 billion tons in 2009. Cement is an important component of concrete, and the global cement production is approximately 4.1 billion tons per year. However, the production of 1 ton of Portland cement can emit between 730–850 kg of CO2. Waste powder is mainly derived from the waste of industrial production or volcanic activities. If not reutilized, such waste powder will cause serious environmental problems.

: eco-friendliness pervious concrete recycled aggregate waste powder

1. Introduction

It has been reported that more than 4.2 billion tons of cement were produced all over the world in year 2016 [1]. The production of cement increases the emission of carbon dioxide, which causes a serious environmental burden. Some waste powder, such as fly ash produced in thermal power plants, volcanic powder generated in the process of volcanic activity and blast furnace slag generated during high-temperature iron smelting, are very suitable for use as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) [2][3][4][5][6]. The reuse of waste powder to replace a portion of cement in mortar or concrete would not only reduce the environmental burden brought by cement production but would also effectively reduce the pollution caused by these waste powders. This is a more environmentally friendly and sustainable method to reduce carbon dioxide emissions [1]. This method of replacing part of the cement with waste powder in a concrete mixture has been applied extensively in studies on waste powder [7][8][9], and it is called the cement replacement method. Schematic diagrams before and after the application of the cement replacement method are illustrated in Figure 1a,b, respectively. It can be seen that the method involves the partial substitution of the cement by waste powder.
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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of cement and aggregate replacement methods.
Additionally, with the rapid development of urbanization, many ageing buildings have to be demolished, which results in a large amount of construction and demolition (C&D) waste. Landfilling is the most common method of disposal, but this also leads to environmental pollution and other problems [10]. In addition, it is increasingly difficult to find suitable sites for landfill, so the cost of landfill is becoming higher and higher. In many countries around the world, huge quantities of old concrete and brick are produced every year [11]. Due to the increase in landfill costs, the scarcity of natural aggregate resources and the increase in construction demand, it has become more and more common to replace parts of natural aggregate with recycled aggregate [12]. As long as the quality of recycled aggregate can be guaranteed, reusing recycled aggregate is a desirable way to solve the environmental problems [13][14]. This method of replacing or partially replacing natural aggregates with recycled aggregates as a raw material for concrete, i.e., the aggregate replacement method, has been extensively researched [15]. A schematic diagram of the aggregate replacement method is shown in Figure 1c. It can be seen that in comparison with Figure 1a, the aggregate replacement method involved only substituting part of the aggregate.
On the other hand, the natural environment changes if buildings and roads are built on it. This turns permeable areas into impermeable areas, which results in a disruption in the natural water cycle [16]. By collecting rainwater and allowing it to seep through the pavement, pervious concrete helps to recharge groundwater and reduce the urban heat island effect. Hence, the application of pervious concrete is an effective means to meet the growing environmental requirements and is a prominent management method for stormwater runoff. Pervious concrete is made with water, cementitious material, coarse aggregate and little or no fine aggregate, which results in a large number of voids, typically with a porosity of 15–25% [17][18][19][20]. Because of its porosity and filtering effect, pervious concrete can also remove some pollutants from rainwater. It has been reported that the pervious concrete pavement in Alcoa City Center in the USA significantly reduced the concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS), nitrite, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) compared to asphalt pavement [21]. Additionally, the special surface texture of pervious concrete also contributes to the skid resistance of roads [22]. Furthermore, pervious concrete has the functional advantages of sound absorption and noise reduction [23]. However, compared with traditional concrete pavement, its elastic modulus, compressive strength and flexural strength are generally lower [24][25][26][27]. Therefore, pervious concrete is mainly used in light-duty pavements such as sidewalks, parking lots and tennis courts [28].
In tandem with the guidance of sustainable development, more and more solid wastes including waste powder and recycled aggregate are being used as raw materials in pervious concrete to produce environmentally friendly and high-performance pervious concrete [29].

2. Waste Powder

According to the literature, the annual global consumption of concrete had reached 25 billion tons in 2009 [30]. Cement is an important component of concrete, and the global cement production is approximately 4.1 billion tons per year. However, the production of 1 ton of Portland cement can emit between 730–850 kg of CO2 [31]. Waste powder is mainly derived from the waste of industrial production or volcanic activities. If not reutilized, such waste powder will cause serious environmental problems [32]. At this juncture, fly ash, volcanic ash and blast furnace slag have been proven suitable for use as SCMs for the production of pervious concrete. As cement replacement materials, fly ash, slag and natural volcanic ash are produced at an annual rate of approximately 500 million tons, 300 million tons and 200 million tons, respectively [33]. In summary, the annual production of waste powder is able to cater for a reasonable proportion of cement substitution in the overall volume of concrete production. Therefore, it is very important to reduce CO2 emissions by replacing cement with these waste powders to meet construction needs [34].

2.1. Fly Ash

Fly ash (FA) is a byproduct of coal power generation and is mainly composed of SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO and some impurities. Since FA can pollute air, water and soil, if not properly handled, it can lead to human health problems and serious environmental problems [35]. According to ASTM C618, if the content of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 is greater than 70%, the FA belongs to class F; if the content of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 is greater than 50%, the FA belongs to class C. Generally, Class F FA has lower CaO content and exhibits the properties that resemble volcanic ash, whereas Class C FA has up to 20% CaO content and exhibits the properties that resemble cementitious material. Generally, class F FA is produced by burning anthracite and raw coal, while class C FA is generated by burning lignite or subbituminous coal. In previous studies on concrete mixed with FA, the strength increased first and then decreased with the increase in the FA content. This is because FA can convert the hydration product Ca(OH)2 of cement into C-S-H, but excess FA will lead to too much reduction in cement content, so that the extra FA cannot participate in the chemical reaction [36].
Due to the good characteristics of FA, more and more studies on its application to pervious concrete have been conducted. Arifi et al. [37] applied FA replacement rates of 0%, 15% and 25% to produce pervious concrete containing natural aggregate or recycled aggregate. The test results showed that FA could improve the compressive strength, splitting strength and flexural strength of pervious concrete. For pervious concrete containing natural aggregates, compared to the control group (0% FA), the 15% FA replacement rate greatly improved the compressive strength (about 60.04%) and splitting tensile strength (about 57.53%), and the 25% FA replacement rate greatly improved the compressive strength (about 120.03%) and splitting tensile strength (about 94.52%). The flexural strength of the pervious concrete with FA decreased and then increased with the increase in FA, but all of them were lower than the control group. For the pervious concrete containing recycled aggregate, the 15% FA replacement rate significantly enhanced the compressive strength and splitting strength, but in terms of the flexural strength, the flexural strength of the pervious concrete with 50% recycled aggregate increased significantly, and the flexural strength of the pervious concrete with 100% recycled aggregate decreased slightly. Saboo et al. [32] suggested that the optimal range of the FA replacement rate was 5% to 15%. With the increase in the FA replacement rate, the demand for water reducer could be reduced, and for both the wet curing method and plastic membrane curing method, the overall 28-day compressive strength showed a significant upward trend. Additionally, due to the volcanic characteristics and filling effect of FA, the wear resistance of pervious concrete could be improved. Haji et al. [38] showed that in terms of water permeability, when the FA content was 0% to 5%, the pervious concrete had better water permeability; when the FA content was 5% to 25%, the permeability of pervious concrete showed a downward trend. Peng et al. [1] reported that compared with traditional pervious concrete, the concrete incorporating FA had a lower 28-day compressive strength (decreased by 10.18% to 16.17%) but a higher 60-day compressive strength (increased by 1.98% to 2.56%). The reason is that the reaction rate of FA was lower than cement, the formation of the C-S-H gel was still in progress and the strength was still developing at 28 days for the concrete-incorporating FA. Aoki et al. [39] added FA at the replacement rate of 20% and 50% and found that the 28-day strength of the pervious concrete was reduced by 12.72% and 43.74%, respectively, and the permeability in the 150 mm and 200 mm water head also decreased. But the drying shrinkage resistance of the pervious concrete was enhanced, and the reason is that most of the water loss from pervious concrete is free nonbonded water from the large air void structure, and its effect is small in the development of shrinkage. Hwang et al. [40] tried to use seawater and FA as raw materials to produce pervious concrete and explored the sustainability of water resources and the recycling of solid waste. More interestingly, the seawater + FA concrete also reduced the concentration of phosphorus in the runoff, and the aqueous phosphorus concentrations were dramatically decreased by 90% after 72 h of contact time with the pervious concrete. Opiso et al. [41] used FA as a partial substitute for cement to prepare pervious concrete with fine sawdust as the internal curing agent. A laboratory evaluation showed that the FA + fine sawdust pervious concrete was more permeable compared to traditional pervious concrete, and the strength of the FA + fine sawdust pervious concrete obtained in the later period was significantly increased; specifically, the 28-day flexural strength increased by 6.95%. The reason for the greater reduction in strength in the early stages was the slow reaction of FA in the formation of the calcium aluminate precipitation. Tho-in et al. [42] produced geopolymer pervious concrete with high-calcium FA and tested its compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, porosity and water permeability. The rationale is that there was a strong interfacial transition zone between the aggregate and geopolymer matrix. The test results showed that the compressive strength was between 5.4 and 11.4 MPa and the splitting tensile strength was between 0.7 and 1.4 MPa, whereas the porosity ranged from 28.7 to 30.4% and the water permeability coefficient ranged from 1.92 to 5.96 cm/s. In addition, some studies have shown that after the special treatment of FA, the content of FA can be increased from 15–25% to 50–60% without affecting the performance of the cement [43]. The variation in the compressive strength and permeability of pervious concrete mixed with class F FA is shown in Figure 2 [1][32][38][39], and the variation in the compressive strength, splitting strength and flexural strength of pervious concrete mixed with class C FA is shown in Figure 3 [37]. It can be seen that both class F FA and class C FA have a positive effect on the mechanical properties of pervious concrete, especially on the later strength. However, there is a negative effect on the permeability of the pervious concrete.
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Figure 2. Compressive strength and permeability versus class F fly ash content [1][32][38][39].
Figure 3. Compressive, splitting and flexural strengths versus class C fly ash content.

2.2. Volcanic Powder

Volcanic ash (VA) and volcanic pumice fines (VPF) are two common volcanic waste powders. These volcanic powders contain abundant natural aluminosilicate resources, which have certain environmental and economic benefits [44]. VA is generally formed during volcanic eruptions. During volcanic activity, violent eruptions of steam usually cause the magma and solid rock around the vents to be torn apart into clay-like particles [45]. Pumice stone refers to a mineral formed by magma cooling after a volcanic eruption, and it is mainly composed of silicon dioxide and contains a large number of pores [46]. Usually, VA (after being dried and sieved) and VPF generated by grinding pumice stones can react with calcium hydroxide to form C-S-H gels and thus are potential SCMs [47].
Researchers have explored some of the applications of VA and VPF to pervious concrete. Hossain et al. [48] found that VA can refine the internal pore structure of concrete, reduce the porosity and average pore diameter of concrete and reduce the content of Ca(OH)2 and thus improve the durability and chloride resistance of concrete. Dahiru et al. [49] substituted VA for a part of cement to prepare concrete and found that VA at a replacement rate of 10% could delay the setting time of concrete and improve the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength by about 7.99% and 6.14%, respectively. The variation in the compressive strength of pervious concrete mixed with VA is shown in Figure 4 [48][49]. It can be seen that when the replacement rate of VA is 5% to 10%, the mechanical properties of concrete can be slightly improved. Zayad et al. [50] noted that the addition of VPF reduced the amount of tricalite silicate and other reactant particles, which is not conducive to the early hydration process and thus reduces the early strength of the concrete. But after 14 days of age, the compressive strength of the concrete containing 10% VPF was higher than that of the control group, and the optimal content of the VPF was about 10%. The microstructures of 0% VPF and 10% VPF samples appeared to be more compact and denser compared to the microstructures of 20% VPF and 30% VPF samples, which were relatively uneven and undulating. Kabay et al. [51] showed that the concrete with VPF and FA exhibited low strength at an early age while the strength at the later stage was comparable to that of the control group. Additionally, replacing cement with VPF, FA and their binder would reduce the water absorption rate and voids content and improve the magnesium sulfate resistance. This could be explained by the filling up of pores and voids by VPF and FA, and the effect of the VPF and FA replacement on the porosity of the concrete was more significant at 180 days, which can be attributed to the more dense structure of the concrete due to the pozzolanic reactions. Azad et al. [52] used VPF as cementitious materials to produce pervious concrete for water purification. The test results showed that when 40% VPF was added, the COD, Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb in sewage were reduced by 25.4%, 98%, 96%, 99% and 99%, respectively. It is shown in Figure 5 that this could be attributed to the porous structure of VPF acting as an adsorption agent for pollutants while the porous structure and surface cavities of VPF cause pumice to react better with cement particles and aggregate surfaces, which results in good adhesion between concrete ingredients and better compressive strength (10% VPF). Mehrabi et al. [53] prepared pervious concrete by applying VPF together with nanoclay to replace a portion of cement and also used recycled aggregate to replace the natural aggregate. It was found that because the VPF could delay the early hydration process, the early compressive strength was reduced by 31% while the late compressive strength was improved. The use of 10% to 25% VPF increased the compressive and flexural strength of the pervious concrete with 100% recycled aggregate. The variation in the compressive strength of the pervious concrete mixed with VA is shown in Figure 6, which shows that when the replacement rate of VPF was 10%, the change in the 28-day compressive strength of the pervious concrete with recycled aggregate was not obvious, and the optimum amount of recycled aggregate should be less than 50%.
Figure 4. Compressive strength versus volcanic ash content [48][49].
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Figure 5. Effect of various content of volcanic pumice fines on the performance of pervious concrete to reduce pollutants: (a) COD and total dissolved solids, (b) heavy metal.
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Figure 6. Compressive strength versus volcanic pumice fines content.

2.3. Blast Furnace Slag

Blast furnace slag (BFS) is the byproduct of iron production from blast furnaces. Generally, in the smelting process of blast furnaces, calcium oxide in the limestone and silica in the ore combine to form dicalcium silicate and tricalcium silicate, which form BFS. BFS has useful applications in the production of mortar and concrete due to its activity [4].
In recent years, research on the effects of BFS on pervious concrete has made good progress. Endawati et al. [54] studied the feasibility of air-cooled BFS in pervious concrete and noted that the maximum compressive strength of 15 MPa was achieved when the content of the air-cooled BFS was 26%, FA was 15% and silica fume was 3%. Compared to other types of blast furnace slag, the air-cooled BFS had better early activity (within 24 h), and therefore, the pervious concrete with air-cooled BFS had very similar compressive strengths at 28 and 60 days. Jian et al. [55] used granulated BFS and copper slag as mineral admixtures to replace cement in recycled aggregate pervious concrete. The test results showed that after adding the granulated BFS and copper slag, the pervious concrete manifested better wear resistance. Among various combinations, 10% granulated BFS + 10% copper slag was the optimal combination, which rendered the wear resistance 38.78% higher than the control group. The reason is that the granulated BFS could fill the micropores to compact the pore structure, and the added granulated BFS consumes the Ca(OH)2 of hydrated cement via pozzolanic reaction to generate C-S-H gel and thereby enhancing the density of the matrix and contributing to the improved wear resistance. EI-Hassan et al. [56][57] studied the influence of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) on different performance attributes of recycled aggregate pervious concrete. The test results indicated that GGBS can improve the mechanical properties and workability of concrete and densify the microstructure of concrete. In the simulation test of the service life of the pervious concrete pavement, water-pressure jet washing was carried out on the blocked pervious concrete, and it was found that the removal of the blockages from the pervious concrete containing GGBS was easier. In addition, by replacing 50% of the cement with GGBS, the pervious concrete yielded a luminous reflectance value of 0.52. Such a high value was due to the color of GGBS being close to white. Using this light-colored pervious concrete as pavement and sidewalks can further reduce the heat island effect and decrease the electricity demand and lighting costs compared to traditional pervious concrete. Kim et al. [58] investigated the mechanical properties and durability of pervious concrete pavement. The test results showed that the 7-day compressive strength of the pervious concrete containing GGBS could reach 5 MPa. And, because GGBS possesses hydration potential, the long-term strength of GGBS pervious concrete could be better than that of normal pervious concrete. Moreover, in the freeze–thaw cycle test, the weight loss of the GGBS pervious concrete was no more than 1% at the replacement rate of 10%, 30% and 50%, which showed that it had good freezing-thawing resistance. However, it should be noted that excess GGBS may lead to increased consumption of Ca(OH)2 and may thus accelerate the rate of carbonation [59]. It is worth mentioning that BFS can effectively remove phosphates from water. This is mainly achieved through the precipitation mechanism and weak physical interaction between the BFS surface and acid metal salts [60]. The variation in the 7- and 28-day compressive strength of the pervious concrete mixed with GGBS is shown in Figure 7 [56][58]. It can be seen that GGBS had a slightly negative effect on the early strength of the pervious concrete but had a positive effect on the long-term strength of the pervious concrete.
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Figure 7. 7- and 28-day compressive strength versus GGBS content.

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Subjects: Engineering, Civil
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Hui-Zhu Xie
,
Leo Gu Li
,
Pui-Lam Ng
,
Feng Liu
View Times: 542
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 04 May 2023
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