Three-Dimensional Printing Applications in Food Industry

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1		Aris E. Giannakas	--	3889	2023-04-04 12:51:58

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/nanomanufacturing3010006

Three-dimensional (3D) printing has gained increasing attention for its unique ability to create geometrically complex designs, which not only can be used for mass manufacturing but also has environmental and economic benefits. Additionally, as far as the food industry is concerned, this emerging technology has the potential to personalize products in terms of shape and/or nutritional requirements creating a wide range of food items with specially made shapes, colors, textures, tastes, and even nutrition using suitable raw materials/food components.

3D printing food technology food packaging ecofriendly

1. Introduction

Three-dimensional (3D) printing or additive manufacturing is a technology that has been studied in the scientific community and applied in many fields for almost forty years, but in the last ten years, there has been a huge interest and increase in popularity ^[1]. All manufacturing processes rely on the innate tendency or inspiration of some people observing a natural process (or object) to create a production process (or product) that would function in the same way. This trend has been fueled by the extraordinary capabilities of 3D printing and has sparked a new era of innovation thanks to its accessibility, customization, efficiency, and affordability. The digital revolution has created a data-rich environment facilitating the ability to transform digital data into innovative physical products through the use of new technologies such as 3D printing ^[2].

Three-dimensional printing has gained increasing attention for its distinctive ability to create geometrically complex designs, which can be applied for mass manufacturing while having environmental and economic benefits. This technology enables transformations in material composition and structure through a printed object. Depth-changing patterns, porous films, thin films, regular gratings, fine-diameter lines, and dots can be formed with multiple heterogeneity or continuity in functionally planar patterns. Various parameters can be adjusted such as surface roughness, shape optimizations, bubble thickness, and novel topology. Throughout the variety of 3D printing, a few fabrication mechanisms provide discrete control between layers (for example, vat polymerization and powder bed fusion) or within a layer (for example, ink writing and material extrusion), and few platforms can enable point-by-point material variants (for example, binder jetting and material jetting) ^[3].

Three-dimensional printing technology in food industries offers new possibilities to make food more nutritious, more accessible, or more appealing. This emerging technology makes it easier than ever to create personalized meals based on one’s caloric intake and specific nutritional needs. Three-dimensional printing can be used to create food products by controlling nutrition contents applicable to each individual or specific consumer group, including young and elderly people, pregnant women, and athletes. Via 3D food printing, a new opportunity is offered for people with exact nutritional benefits, for example, patients or the elderly who have problems swallowing or eating ^[4].

As food additives are necessary to improve the printability of food, their use has expanded significantly ^[5]. The knowledge of the effects of food additives on food texture and shape can improve the design and production of personalized meals by reducing reliance on trial-and-error design processes for designing novel food products ^[4]. Food-grade additives could be used to enhance the proper thickness of a liquid, i.e., a natural substance, and printability. Hydrocolloids such as sugars, starches, proteins, and carbohydrates could be used to enhance printability ^[6].

A disruptive alternative, 3D printing could account for over ninety percent of plastics made from pure scraps of life-form raw materials. By reusing plastics (after operations such as extruding, shredding, drying, and cleaning), 3D printing could be used advantageously to make excellent food packaging. The only limitation is the necessity for new tactical processing and planning systems different from the existing ones. It has the potential to change working conditions and reduce energy input in digitized production chains in terms of energy impact ^[7].

Synthetic plastics are convenient and versatile materials. They can be utilized to make a variety of helpful products, but the excessive use of plastic damages the environment irreparably. As a result, great efforts have been made toward the advancement of more environmentally friendly and biodegradable materials. Starch seems like a suitable alternative to synthetic polymers among the various alternatives. This is due to the following characteristics: good film-forming properties, high biocompatibility, complete biodegradability, low cost, and abundant supply. However, to improve the practical use of starch-based materials, there are some technical difficulties that need to be overcome ^[8].

2. Advantages and Disadvantages of 3D Printing

A 3D printer generally works identically to a standard inkjet printer; however, instead of printing layers of ink onto paper, it uses materials to make a three-dimensional object. This method is completely innovative and has the potential to significantly replace traditional manufacturing methods due to many distinct advantages which are summarized in the following points ^[9]^[10]:

Three-dimensional printers leave a smaller environmental footprint than conventional manufacturing systems. Relatively limited waste is produced due to the high recyclability of the raw materials and the fact that no mechanical processing is required. The raw materials can be reused over the course of several production runs.
Three-dimensional printing can adapt physical morphologies accurately (for example, the orientation of constitute building blocks).
The use and selective deposition of a wide range of multifunctional materials (polymers, ceramics, composites, food powders) during printing a product can be purposely designed.
The restrictions that traditional manufacturing normally imposes do not exist in 3D printing. It enables complex dimensions and geometries in a wide range of quantities (for example, undercuts, substructures, and topologies).
Three-dimensional printing offers greater design flexibility and improved manufacturing adaptability (for example, foams, lattices, and cells). The only barrier is the minimum project size that can be accurately printed.
The procedure of copying the original is easier and faster (for example, fewer requirements are needed for mold, die, or component tools). Three-dimensional structures are reproducible and impossible to make by hand alone.
With conventional methods, parts are constructed in several steps while 3D printing manufactures parts in a single step, significantly amplifying the efficiency from design to production.
The ability to verify a design by printing a production-ready prototype before financing expensive construction equipment (e.g., molds, accessories, and tooling) minimizes risk and financial loss during the prototyping process.
Most 3D printers do not require highly skilled staff making labor costs much lower than traditional manufacturing. The machine works in a fully automated way to produce the part according to the file uploaded by a single operator.

As with any other process, there are also limitations and disadvantages of 3D printing technology that should be mentioned ^[11]^[12]:

The rheological and mechanical properties of most raw materials must be modified through the addition of flow enhancers to obtain an extrudable paste-like material.
Another drawback of 3D printing is the composite material itself. Τhe different chemical properties and storage requirements (temperature and humidity) of each component and how they are affected by the presence of the remaining components must be considered in combination when designing and piloting the 3D printing method.
Some raw materials may be easy to extrude but cannot withstand a 3D structure, as is the case with vegetables which have a high water content.
A lot of 3D products do not have the ability to withstand post-processing operations without losing the 3D intricate design due to cooking loss/shrinkage.
Conventional techniques are still much faster than 3D printing. For example, a normal production line can produce up to nine thousand kilos of pasta per hour, while the printer can currently produce about four kilos per day ^[13].
Three-dimensional printers currently have small print chambers which restrict the size of products that can be printed.
Another potential problem with 3D printing is directly related to the type of machine or process used. If a printer has lower tolerance, the final product may differ from the original design. This can be fixed in post-processing but will have a negative impact on production time and cost.
The shelf life of 3D-printed food products is limited to a few hours, while the corresponding products of traditional methods can be consumed even after 9–12 months.

3. Evolution of 3D Printing

In recent years, 3D printing has attracted global interest as an emerging process of manufacturing complex and innovative 3D objects that find application in various fields such as healthcare, biomedical and mechanical engineering, aerospace, architecture, education, consumer goods industry, textile industry, and food industry. New methods and advancements are regularly created to overcome the obstacles that arise when applying it to each field. To build a physical model, 3D printing technology has been used directly from 3D modeling without any mold assistance. This technology more than twice has been used to manufacture an intricate and complex part that was required in each industry.

More and more, the unprecedented properties and outstanding advantages of 3D printing have attracted the interest of food researchers at the laboratory and industrial levels worldwide. When we talk about 3D printing in the food industry, we are referring to the process of creating food using 3D printing technology. This technology makes use of food ingredients that are relatively viscous to confirm that, after extrusion, the material will retain the desired shape and appearance. In the future, 3D food printing could make complex food models with special interior design. The technique includes selective laser spraying and sintering (liquid binding) as well as extrusion-based printing. Food materials such as chocolate, gelatin, and sugar are used to create layer-based patterns ^[5]^[14]. Every food is a different intricate system consisting of several components. These components interact with each other during processing and form the microstructures that determine the characteristics of food such as shape, color, texture, taste, and stability ^[6].

Three-dimensional printing is defined as a technical operation in which the final product of a precise geometric shape is formed layer by layer by depositing material such as plastic, resins, graphite, carbon fiber, ceramics, paper, or food on a platform. It applies the same specification and layout as that of the three-dimensional computer-aided design (CAD) model or scanned model of the product. Before the printing process, the model is saved as an STL (Stereolithography) file, which is then converted into a geometric code, popularly known as a G-code. This is a programming language that the printer “understands”, and it controls actions such as where the print head goes, what the temperature of the extruder will be, when to pause, how fast the print head moves, and more. The G-code controls the movement of the printer head which is responsible for the release of material in the 3D printer. The movement takes place in three axes, X, Y, and Z—left to right, front to back, and up and down, respectively—as the object is being printed depending on the information embedded in the G-code. This pattern information is separated layer by layer and finally assembled during printing according to a defined 3D pattern ^[7].

Three-dimensional printing has no resemblance to other manufacturing processes. A major technical advantage of 3D printing is the ability to switch from conventional printing to new production technologies. This technique ensures the fast design and cost-effective on-demand production of prototypes and molds that can be used to manufacture strong yet lightweight parts with complex geometry. It is an automated production process carried out in one step using a single piece of equipment, needing no additional accessories and requiring little or no human supervision. Only the materials needed for the part itself are needed, and the 3D printer has the ability itself to create multi-component systems with minimal waste ^[8].

Τhe method of 3D printing is a relatively recent discovery. Its birth was placed in the early 1980s, but it became more widely known at the beginning of the following decade. Professor Hideo Kodama from Japan is considered the first to develop a rapid prototyping method, and Charles (Chuck) Hull of 3D Systems from California is the one who invented the stereolithography equipment. Kodama of the Municipal Industrial Research Institute in Nagoya, Japan, at the end of the 1980s developed the earliest 3D printing manufacturing when he invented two additive methods for fabricating 3D models. Kodama’s early work in laser-cured-resin rapid prototyping was completed in 1981. His invention was expanded upon over the next three decades, with the introduction of stereolithography in 1984. Chuck Hull invented the first 3D printer in 1987, which used the stereolithography process. Its use was based on a method of creating solid objects by layering materials using a computer-generated design. This was followed by expansions such as selective laser sintering (SLS) and fused deposition modeling (FDM). Both methods had their first approved patents filed in 1988. The cost of 3D printers built over the next decade was quite high and began to drop dramatically when the patents expired in 2009. This allowed many more users to experience the new achievement of technology ^[15].

The rapid prototyping (RP) technology grew into additive manufacturing (AM). AM is a more advanced type and can create complex 3D objects layer by layer, either using plastic polymer filaments and metal or, in the recent past, edible materials such as chocolate and sugar. Specialized food 3D printers are designed specifically for the food industry, and 3D printing is beginning to be applied to food production. Apart from RP, according to ^[16], there are some broadly used technologies in AM such as selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM), and stereolithography (SL). In addition, there are several research studies and plans in 3D food printing in a large number of areas, according to ^[4]. These studies range from the advancement of conceptual and inspirational thoughts to the in-depth understanding of material goods.

The most advanced 3D food printer allows the customer to choose one of the pre-loaded recipes on board and also allows the user to remotely design their food on their computers, phones, or certain IOT gadgets ^[17]. A plan to achieve 3D food printing is constructed from inkjet-printing food materials and expulsion-based printing, such as gelatin and sugar used with chocolate ^[18]. Being founded with regard to the rheological calculations of their stiffness gives a large enhancement to the dimensional soundness of 3D food objects ^[19]. Issues such as the mechanical properties of 3D printing and computational micro-design should be addressed. The above will help us enhance the quality of food printing ^[20]. Three-dimensional printing, while advantageous, will have to overcome some obstacles, the first of which is speed. It requires ingredients to cool first, and it uses different patterns from what food printers often print. Furthermore, customers need time to get used to the concept of food printers and not confuse it with synthetic food.

4. Three-Dimensional Printing Processes

Three-dimensional printing processes have been generally categorized into seven groups by ISO/ASTM 52900 additive manufacturing (general principles) terminology. All forms of 3D printing fall into one of the following process types based on the various related technologies that have been studied in each group: (a) binder jetting (powder bed and inkjet heat, plaster-based 3D printing), (b) direct energy deposition (laser metal deposition), (c) material extrusion (fused deposition modeling), (d) material jetting (multijet modeling), (e) powder bed fusion (electron beam melting, selective laser sintering, selective heat sintering), (f) sheet lamination (laminate object manufacturing, ultrasonic consolidation), and (g) vat polymerization (stereolithography, digital light processing) ^[21]. This classification was only applicable to non-food prints. An extensive study of recent publications in the field of 3D printing shows that 3DP techniques applied to food production can be classified into four main groups ^[18]: (1) selective laser sintering (SLS); (2) hot air sintering (HAS); (3) liquid binding; and (4) the extrusion method. The last one is the method that most research groups/labs around the world use ^[7].

5. Intelligent Food Packaging

Food packaging protects food from tampering or contamination from physical, chemical, and biological sources to extend shelf life and provide the consumer with good-quality food. Packaging also presents branding and nutritional information and promotes marketing ^[22]. With traditional food packaging, potential food adulteration or fraud may not be detected. Smart food packaging, however, provides real-time communication about the condition of food and ensures that consumers receive higher-quality food products. An intelligent packaging system indicates and monitors parameters (i.e., freshness, temperature, pH, gas) related to the physicochemical condition of the product during transport and storage. Additionally, this technology prevents food loss to a large extent, and therefore it reduces food waste. However, current intelligent food-packaging products are not affordable in the food industry, as the conventional technologies used today increase the cost of the product, and consumers do not seem willing to bear it. An additional drawback is the availability and use of safe food-friendly materials to produce smart packaging components such as sensors that monitor and record the parameters the consumer is informed about. So, the global scientific community has been looking for alternatives in recent years.

Three-dimensional printing has been used to create sensors that can monitor food quality, ensure package integrity, and verify food authenticity ^[23]. Various advantages have been reported, such as simplicity, versatility, low cost, high accuracy, high strength, the wide adaptation of materials, simple maintenance, and colorful printing. This is a viable technology for making smart components that can be integrated into conventional food packaging to create intelligent ones. A 3D printing approach to intelligent food packaging has been recently reported by Tracey et al. ^[8]. They described additive manufacturing based on two aspects: stereolithography and as a cost-effective solution for the fabrication of smart packaging systems. The comparison of conventional technologies with additive manufacturing showed that the latter excels in terms of high resolution, complex geometry, simultaneous multi-material printing, and suitability for large- and small-scale manufacturing while the disadvantages are that the extrusion-based 3D printing technique was time-consuming and stereolithography was rather expensive. However, it should be noted that the initial cost of printers for stereolithography can be relatively high as 3D printing is still a new technology, but already in the last decade, the prices of printers have shown a significant decrease due to the development of newer models of printers ^[24].

The three-dimensional printing approach to point-of-use machines and the fabrication of intelligent packaging allow multifunctional smart components, self-indicating, and the development of high sensitivity, utilizing biocompatible non-toxic substances which are cheaper than traditional fabrication techniques. This would make intelligent food packaging more widespread and, subsequently, prevent customers from purchasing inadequate food items and lessen food waste ^[8].

Both intelligent and active packaging systems comprise smart packaging. The aim is to give the consumer more accurate information concerning the prevention of food spoilage and the product, using antioxidant and antimicrobial agents ^[25].

Food freshness indicators (FFIs) are a cost-effective intelligent packaging approach that uses as-it-happens detection. It observes the spoilage/freshness conditions of food, also informing the customers of the food status. Suitable FFIs should make the difference between typical spoiled food, medium fresh, and fresh visible to the naked eye. Few enhanced parameters such as polymers and halochromic colorants are utilized in the FFIs. In addition, the technique of preparation can directly influence the performance of that food. However, the creation of FFIs has well-established conventions; the application of novel methods for preparing FFIs and the utilization of natural coloring materials from different sources in the development of FFIs have grown because of the increasing research in this field ^[26].

Developing biodegradable packaging from renewable resources is important to solve the environmental problems caused by using synthetic plastics. Due to their safety and abundant resources, food packaging based on polysaccharides, anthocyanin, and essential oils has attracted much attention and will be discussed next.

Polysaccharide films used as smart food packaging ensure biodegradability, safety, and renewability. Although many works have been published on food packaging using alginate, chitosan, and other polysaccharides, there are few studies on polysaccharide film printing. This aspect is under research probably due to many requirements for edible ink and the lack of a suitable printing method ^[27]. An edible screen-printing ink with chitosan solution that can be used in the food package printing industry has been described ^[28]. According to the researchers, it not only has the excellent properties of traditional ink such as fineness, viscosity, initial dryness, tinting strength, and adhesion to the substrate, but it is edible as well.

Caro et al. developed new active packaging films based on chitosan and chitosan/quinoa protein with chitosan-tripolyphosphate-thymol nanoparticles via thermal inkjet printing ^[29]. It was concluded that these films improved the water vapor barrier, acted as a good platform for the delivery of active compounds, and increased antimicrobial activity against relevant microorganisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This technology could enable the development of new packaging materials to extend the shelf life of fresh fruits.

Chitosan–starch films with natural extracts were developed by Lozano-Navarro et al. ^[30]. They showed that films with fruit and vegetable extracts (beetroot, cranberry, and blueberry) exhibited the best antimicrobial activity against various bacteria and fungi in comparison with the original chitosan–starch film. It was also found that the chitosan coatings composed of starch or gelatin and their mixture with thymol and geraniol prolonged shelf life during storage and protected strawberries against fungal decay ^[31].

Anthocyanins are natural water-soluble pigments that are gaining more and more attention due to their excellent properties such as potential health-promoting properties, biocompatibility, and different colors at varying pH. In smart food-packaging systems, they have a very high probability of being considered as a suitable pH indicator. These innovative films have been illustrated to enhance the relative excellence of food items made and the food safety. They could be used as a fast, accurate, and reliable tool monitoring the progress of freshness and/or spoilage. Anthocyanins have countless potential advantages as a powerful tool to fulfill one of the goals of smart packaging which is observing food freshness. ^[32].

Much research is being conducted, in addition to anthocyanins, into the various types of applications of essential oils in food packaging. For example, shikonin extracted from Lithospermum Erythrorhizon root has been utilized as a dye added to the cellulose membrane in order to create a color-rendering film ^[33]. However, no actionable relevance has been established in this research. Therefore, whether it can be applied to food packaging is currently uncertain. The preservation effect of essential oils can only be achieved by the careful study of different food points, although there are many studies that have placed them in packaging substances and used essential oils as an additive that preserves food. In this way, some analyses have been conducted on using essential oils and natural anthocyanin dyes in food packaging as well. Essential oils can increase the shelf life of foods as antimicrobial antioxidants. The pH value of the environment determines the color of anthocyanin, which is the first food preservation reaction in observing the effectiveness of the essential oil. However, in this study, the dual indicator membrane has great application prospects ^[34].

In ^[34], chitosan, mulberry anthocyanin, and lemongrass essential oils were used as an interlayer using a 3D printer. Further, cassava starch was used as a protective layer to form indicator films. The antioxidant and antibacterial properties of indicator films containing lemongrass were noteworthy, and furthermore, the release rate of essential oils increased with a rise in pH.

Μeat and meat products are prone to microbial contamination and the oxidation of their lipids and proteins. To ensure food safety and maintain quality, many intelligent packaging systems have been tested ^[35]. Among the most used devices in this type of packaging are gas indicators. These are small devices that can be printed on packaging films and respond to changes in the internal gas composition, thus stipulating a scheme for monitoring the quality and safety of food products.

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