Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Antonio Franchi Bovolini
 -- 2275 2022-12-22 17:05:26 |
2 format
Jason Zhu
 -1 word(s) 2274 2022-12-23 03:58:51 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?
Send video materials Upload full video

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Bovolini, A.;  Costa-Brito, A.R.;  Martins, F.;  Furtado, G.E.;  Mendonça, G.V.;  Vila-Chã, C. Impact of Exercise on Vascular Function in Adults. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/39112 (accessed on 18 June 2024).
Bovolini A,  Costa-Brito AR,  Martins F,  Furtado GE,  Mendonça GV,  Vila-Chã C. Impact of Exercise on Vascular Function in Adults. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/39112. Accessed June 18, 2024.
Bovolini, Antonio, Ana Raquel Costa-Brito, Faber Martins, Guilherme Eustáquio Furtado, Gonçalo V. Mendonça, Carolina Vila-Chã. "Impact of Exercise on Vascular Function in Adults" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/39112 (accessed June 18, 2024).
Bovolini, A.,  Costa-Brito, A.R.,  Martins, F.,  Furtado, G.E.,  Mendonça, G.V., & Vila-Chã, C. (2022, December 22). Impact of Exercise on Vascular Function in Adults. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/39112
Bovolini, Antonio, et al. "Impact of Exercise on Vascular Function in Adults." Encyclopedia. Web. 22 December, 2022.
Impact of Exercise on Vascular Function in Adults
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/sports10120208

There is a substantial literature gap related to the vascular response to different types of exercise training in middle-aged and older populations. Different exercise interventions can be applied to improve vascular function in middle-aged and older adults. Studies on combined and stretching exercises reported encouraging results in improving vascular function. Stretching exercises rise as an effective alternative in promoting vascular function among older adults, while combined exercise delivered promising vascular benefits in both populations.

exercise training macrovascular function microvascular function

1. Introduction

Several ageing-related cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are triggered by changes in the arterial phenotype [1][2], such as the stiffening of large elastic arteries and endothelial dysfunction, which are independent predictors of forthcoming CVDs [3]. Given the high prevalence of ageing-related vascular disorders in males and females [4][5], promoting vascular health and preventing the development of CVDs in middle-aged (40–60 years) and older adults (60 years or older) is critical for public health.
Based on recent reports from the American College of Sports Medicine, there is a growing demand for health-oriented physical exercise for specific populations in Europe and the world, including among middle-aged and older adults [6][7]. The latest World Health Organization guidelines highlight and reaffirm the beneficial role of physical activity in the general health of older adults [8]. Indeed, the role of exercise in reducing risk factors for CVD and preventing viral infection diseases (in particular by SARS-CoV-2) in middle-aged and old adults is well-established [9][10][11][12]. However, the positive impact of exercise is not only circumscribed to changes in CVD risk factors. Current evidence indicates a direct impact of exercise on arterial function (e.g., anti-atherogenic and anti-oxidative stress effects), mainly due to repetitive exposure to hemodynamic stimuli, such as shear stress and transmural pressure [13][14][15][16]. In this sense, exercise represents a promising approach to preventing/managing vascular dysfunction, particularly in middle-aged and older adults [17]. Exercise is a highly versatile non-pharmacological tool with few contraindications and minimal side effects [18]. Yet, the available literature on exercise and vascular function in older populations is relatively scarce. Most of the accumulated evidence is based on exposure to endurance exercise [19]. Nonetheless, few studies directly compared the same endurance exercise mode performed at different exercise intensities [20][21]. On the other hand, the effects of resistance and stretching training on vascular function remain poorly explored.
Given vascular senescence is typically accompanied by functional (physical and cognitive) limitations [22], investigating the potential benefits of diverse types of exercise in this population is critical. Despite the evidence indicating that exercise training represents an effective strategy to promote vascular health [13][23], there are inconsistent data on the effects of chronic exercise on the vascular function of middle-aged and older adults. In addition, the magnitude of structural arterial adaptation (e.g., measured through the flow-mediated dilatation) to distinct characteristics of exercise (e.g., intensity, volume), as well as exercise-induced changes in different vascular regions (e.g., central vs. peripheral), have been poorly characterized and investigated. Therefore, it is relevant to identify and systematize the primary benefits of exercise training on vascular function and characterize the training regimens to allow fine-tuning the exercise prescription based on safety and effectiveness.

2. General Characteristics of the Population

Ageing-related arterial maladaptation is a major risk factor for CVDs [24]. Therefore, understanding the exercise contributions to the age groups most vulnerable to ageing-related vascular changes is essential. Regular exercise appears to be the most effective non-pharmacological prophylactic/therapeutic strategy against ageing effects on vascular health regardless of sex [17][25]. However, the current literature presents a considerable gap in investigating the vascular response of middle-aged and older adults to exercise. Considering studies in populations over 75 years old, classified as old-old (75–94 years) and oldest-old (over 95 years) [26], the results revealed a lack of studies in these age groups. None of the studies included individuals over 72 years of age. This might be a consequence of the clinical characteristics usually associated with the ageing process, such as physical/cognitive decline, and frailty [22][27][28]. Such characteristics demand specific exercise interventions to meet the specific needs of these populations [22][27][28]. For instance, endurance and resistance exercises require functional and motor skills that are frequently incompatible with the physical-functional status of older individuals [27][28]. In this sense, less motor complex, and effort-demanding exercise interventions, such as stretching exercise, have emerged as an alternative to promote vascular health in middle-aged and older adults.
Most of the included studies investigated the vascular impact of exercise in middle-aged adults in mixed populations of males and females. However, rising evidence reveals that the progress of vascular ageing in females may follow a different chronology than in males, likely due to the role of sex hormones in the modulation of vascular (dys)function [29][30][31]. Yet, only middle-aged studies were composed of women.

3. Endurance Training

Studies with endurance exercise interventions showed the highest number of vascular benefits (29 studies). Among them, the benefits of aerobic training on vascular function were mostly in macrovascular outcomes. Endurance training was particularly effective in decreasing PWV (seven studies) and increasing FMD (20 studies). FMD is a well-established measure to assess the future risk of cardiovascular disease, being suggested as an independent predictor of cardiovascular events in different populations [32][33][34]. Likewise, PWV is the gold-standard method for arterial stiffness evaluation and a predictor marker of cardiovascular events in several clinical conditions such as heart failure, hypertension, and pulmonary hypertension [35]. Therefore, the modulation of these vascular health indicators represents a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular adverse events and diseases. Endurance interventions reporting vascular function benefits applied low- (eight studies) [36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43], moderated- (seven studies) [44][45][46][47][48][49][50], high- (six studies) [46][49][51][52][53][54], and the moderated-high- (five studies) [42][55][56][57][58] intensity of exercise. Endurance training also showed benefits on other vascular markers such as IMT (one study) [59]. However, this type of exercise was not effective in modulating other markers of the macrovascular function such as ABI, ALX, and CAVI at all exercise intensities, no studies reported any benefit of endurance training on these markers [37][42][43][50][52][60][61][62][63][64]. These markers are predictors of heart and vascular diseases commonly linked to ageing, such as arterial stiffness and atherosclerotic and coronary heart disease [65][66].
The benefits of endurance training on microvascular function were less investigated and the least reported by the studies (seven in 29 studies) [45][67][68][69][70][71][72]. Positive effects of endurance training on SNP (three studies) [45][68][71], ACh (five studies) [67][68][70][71][72][73], and RH (one study) [69] were reported. Comparing exercise intensities, a higher number of high-intensity endurance exercise studies reported benefits in microvascular function outcomes (five studies) [69][70][71][73][74]. Nevertheless, microvascular benefits were also reported in studies with moderated- (one study) [45], and low-intensity exercises (two studies) [67][68].
The vascular benefits of endurance training have been usually associated with relative intensity [75]. It has been suggested that high exercise intensities can induce greater shear stresses and more prominent vascular-related adaptations [76]. However, according to ACSM, high-intensity exercise may be particularly provocative for triggering negative cardiovascular events [77]. A substantial number of studies with low-intensity endurance exercise reported positive effects on at least one indicator of macrovascular function, suggesting such intensity is also effective in improving vascular function.

4. Resistance Training

Resistance training is a widely recommended non-pharmacological tool for preventing sarcopenia, osteoporosis, lifestyle-related diseases (e.g., diabetes), and maintaining and/or improving overall physical condition in middle-aged and older adults [78]. Resistance training is also known to reduce CVDs risk factors [79] but the mechanisms by which it reduces CVDs risk are still unclear. Although the potential benefits of resistance training on vascular function is a consistent hypothesis in the literature [80], the current evidence is still controversial and limited.
Approximately half of the studies reported some or no vascular benefit from resistance training (six studies reported improvements and seven studies indicated no benefits). Only macrovascular benefits from resistance training were reported. Among macrovascular outcomes, resistance training was effective in modulating FMD (three studies) [54][81][82], PWV (two studies) [56][83], and ALX (one study) [84]. However, it was not possible to identify the most effective exercise intensity, since beneficial effects were reported by studies with four different exercise intensities, but with similar frequency (low- [83][84], moderated- [81], moderated-high- [56][82], and high-intensity [54]). Such results seem to indicate that rather than exercise intensity, the frequency of the resistance training seems to be relevant to improve vascular function. Indeed, high-intensity resistance training has been associated with an increase in arterial stiffness markers in both normotensive and hypertensive adults [85]. Since vascular function is closely linked with the sympathetic nervous system, it has been reported that resistance training might increase arterial stiffness due to its strong sympathetic vasoconstrictive effect on arterial walls. The resistance training-related factors that contribute (or do not) to promoting vascular function are complex and the vascular adaptation mechanisms underlying resistance training are still not fully understood [86]. It is speculated that the mechanical compression of the vessels followed by the release of blood flow during resistance training seems to respectively induce transient ischemia and subsequent hyperaemia increasing local shear stress [86]. More studies are needed to investigate the mechanisms of vascular response to resistance training and optimize the prescription of this type of exercise to promote vascular health. However, current evidence suggests that resistance training seems effective in positively modulating macrovascular function as half of the studies reported some positive effects on markers of macrovascular function, mostly decreasing PWV and increasing FMD. Given that no studies reported microvascular benefits, resistance training does not seem efficient in promoting microvascular function at any exercise intensity.

5. Combined Exercise Training

Combined exercise interventions showed a significant number of vascular benefits. Seven [54][87][88][89][90][91][92] of eight studies reported some beneficial vascular effects from combined exercise intervention. Only one study of moderate-high intensity combined exercise did not report any effect on vascular function [93]. As observed in the interventions of other types of exercises, macrovascular function outcomes were the most frequently analysed, being reported in seven studies [54][87][89][91][92][93], while only one study [88] examined the microvascular function outcomes. Among the studies analysing the effects of combined exercise on macrovascular function, six reported positive effects, namely on PWV (three studies) [90][91][92], FMD (two studies) [54][89], IMT (one study) [91], and ALX (one study) [87]. Among the exercise intensities from the studies showing beneficial macrovascular effects are moderated-intensity (five studies) [54][89][90][91][92], followed by high- (two studies) [91], and low-intensity (one study) [87] exercise. In contrast, only one study [88] looked at the impact of combined exercise of high-intensity on microvascular function outcomes, which revealed a positive modulation of the SNP and RH indicators. SNP is a commonly used vasodilator in pharmaceutical therapies and research to assess vessel dilation capacity in response to nitric oxide [94]. Along with RH, it is a significant indicator of microvascular and endothelial function [94].
The current evidence suggests that the combination of endurance and strength exercises is the most effective exercise combination for promoting vascular health since all studies showing positive vascular effects of exercise utilised this combination of exercise. Indeed, current literature suggests that the combination of endurance-and resistance-type exercises is associated with the improvement, or at least stabilization, of arterial stiffness markers in older adults [95]. Combined exercise training (compared to other modalities such as strength training and under the most recent international guidelines) has been identified as the most effective modality in improving different cardiometabolic parameters in adults, namely in adult populations with overweight or obesity [96]. However, the order in which endurance and resistance exercises are performed in combined exercise interventions may alter the vascular impact of this type of exercise [97][98][99]. More significant vascular benefits were reported when endurance training was performed after resistance exercises in middle-aged adults. Such results suggest that the order of execution in the combination of aerobic and strength exercises should be taken into consideration when prescribing combined training. However, more studies dedicated to examining the impact of different types and intensities of combined exercises are urgently needed.

6. Stretching Training

Interventions with stretching exercises also showed positive results in vascular function outcomes, with seven of eight studies [100][101][102][103][104][105][106] describing some vascular benefits. The macrovascular function outcomes were the most reported among studies with stretching exercise interventions (six studies). Among them, five studies report some benefits [100][101][102][105][106] regardless of intervention duration, training frequency, and training session duration. There was no predominance among the macrovascular function markers that most benefited from stretching exercises, with positive effects being reported on PWV (two studies) [100][101], ALX (two studies) [105][106], CAVI (one study) [100], and FMD (one study) [102]. Among the perceived intensities of stretching exercises, a higher number of vascular benefits were reported by stretching interventions with “minimal discomfort” intensity (four studies) [100][101][102][103]. Only one study with “fairly light” perceived intensity of stretching exercise did not report any effects on vascular outcomes [107]. The mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of stretching exercise on vascular function are unclear, evidence has suggested that fluctuations in the shear rate during repetitive administration of stretching exercises are effective stimuli in improving vascular function and blood flow control mechanisms [108]. Still, it is important to highlight that after stretching training cessation, the improvements related to the central mechanisms remain for approximately 6 weeks, while the gains related to the local mechanisms seem to have a more persistent duration [108].
Only two studies [103][104] investigated microvascular function outcomes and both reported beneficial effects of exercise. Both studies were particularly efficient in increasing RH-PAT at “minimal discomfort” [103] and “somewhat heavy” [104] intensities of stretching exercise. RH/RH-PAT is a well-established method for the non-invasive assessment of microvascular (peripheral) function and a well-accepted predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality [109]. Despite the low number of studies dedicated to assessing the impact of stretching exercises on microvascular function outcomes, the results are promising. Stretching exercise protocols have recently gained attention from researchers as an ascending exercise alternative to promote vascular health, especially among older adults [108][110][111]. This type of exercise is highly versatile and feasible to implement in community-dwelling middle-aged and older adults [112]. Additionally, above all, stretching exercise protocols do not require highly specialized spaces and significant financial investment.
Overall, stretching exercise interventions were effective in promoting macro- (modulating CAVI, FMD, PWV, and ALX) and microvascular function (increasing RH-PAT), particularly at low perceived exercise intensities classified as “minimal discomfort”.

References

  1. Priebe, H.-J. The Aged Cardiovascular Risk Patient. Br. J. Anaesth. 2000, 85, 763–778.
  2. Lakatta, E.G.; Levy, D. Arterial and Cardiac Aging: Major Shareholders in Cardiovascular Disease Enterprises: Part I: Aging Arteries: A “Set up” for Vascular Disease. Circulation 2003, 107, 139–146.
  3. Donato, A.J.; Machin, D.R.; Lesniewski, L.A. Mechanisms of Dysfunction in the Aging Vasculature and Role in Age-Related Disease. Circ. Res. 2018, 123, 825–848.
  4. Rodgers, J.L.; Jones, J.; Bolleddu, S.I.; Vanthenapalli, S.; Rodgers, L.E.; Shah, K.; Karia, K.; Panguluri, S.K. Cardiovascular Risks Associated with Gender and Aging. J. Cardiovasc. Dev. Dis. 2019, 6, 19.
  5. Yazdanyar, A.; Newman, A.B. The Burden of Cardiovascular Disease in the Elderly: Morbidity, Mortality, and Costs. Clin. Geriatr. Med. 2009, 25, 563–577.
  6. Kercher, V.M.; Kercher, K.; Bennion, T.; Levy, P.; Alexander, C.; Amaral, P.C.; Li, Y.-M.; Han, J.; Liu, Y.; Wang, R.; et al. 2022 Fitness Trends from around the Globe. ACSM’s Health Fit. J. 2022, 26, 21–37.
  7. Batrakoulis, A. European Survey of Fitness Trends for 2020. ACSM’s Health Fit. J. 2019, 23, 28–35.
  8. Bull, F.C.; Al-Ansari, S.S.; Biddle, S.; Borodulin, K.; Buman, M.P.; Cardon, G.; Carty, C.; Chaput, J.-P.; Chastin, S.; Chou, R.; et al. World Health Organization 2020 Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour. Br. J. Sports Med. 2020, 54, 1451–1462.
  9. Fiuza-Luces, C.; Santos-Lozano, A.; Joyner, M.; Carrera-Bastos, P.; Picazo, O.; Zugaza, J.L.; Izquierdo, M.; Ruilope, L.M.; Lucia, A. Exercise Benefits in Cardiovascular Disease: Beyond Attenuation of Traditional Risk Factors. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 2018, 15, 731–743.
  10. Lavie, C.J.; Ozemek, C.; Carbone, S.; Katzmarzyk, P.T.; Blair, S.N. Sedentary Behavior, Exercise, and Cardiovascular Health. Circ. Res. 2019, 124, 799–815.
  11. Nystoriak, M.A.; Bhatnagar, A. Cardiovascular Effects and Benefits of Exercise. Front. Cardiovasc. Med. 2018, 5, 135.
  12. Burtscher, J.; Burtscher, M.; Millet, G.P. The Central Role of Mitochondrial Fitness on Antiviral Defenses: An Advocacy for Physical Activity during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Redox Biol. 2021, 43, 101976.
  13. Green, D.J.; Smith, K.J. Effects of Exercise on Vascular Function, Structure, and Health in Humans. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 2018, 8, a029819.
  14. Joyner, M.J.; Green, D.J. Exercise Protects the Cardiovascular System: Effects beyond Traditional Risk Factors. J. Physiol. 2009, 587, 5551–5558.
  15. Bouzid, M.A.; Filaire, E.; Matran, R.; Robin, S.; Fabre, C. Lifelong Voluntary Exercise Modulates Age-Related Changes in Oxidative Stress. Int. J. Sports Med. 2018, 40, 21–28.
  16. Rossman, M.J.; Gioscia-Ryan, R.A.; Clayton, Z.S.; Murphy, M.P.; Seals, D.R. Targeting Mitochondrial Fitness as a Strategy for Healthy Vascular Aging. Clin. Sci. 2020, 134, 1491–1519.
  17. Rossman, M.J.; LaRocca, T.J.; Martens, C.R.; Seals, D.R. Healthy Lifestyle-Based Approaches for Successful Vascular Aging. J. Appl. Physiol. 2018, 125, 1888–1900.
  18. Vina, J.; Sanchis-Gomar, F.; Martinez-Bello, V.; Gomez-Cabrera, M.C. Exercise Acts as a Drug; the Pharmacological Benefits of Exercise. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2012, 167, 1–12.
  19. Craighead, D.H.; Freeberg, K.A.; Seals, D.R. The Protective Role of Regular Aerobic Exercise on Vascular Function with Aging. Curr. Opin. Physiol. 2019, 10, 55–63.
  20. Ramos, J.S.; Dalleck, L.C.; Tjonna, A.E.; Beetham, K.S.; Coombes, J.S. The Impact of High-Intensity Interval Training versus Moderate-Intensity Continuous Training on Vascular Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sport. Med. 2015, 45, 679–692.
  21. Hanson, B.E.; Proffit, M.; Gifford, J.R. Vascular Function Is Related to Blood Flow during High-Intensity, but Not Low-Intensity, Knee Extension Exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 2020, 128, 698–708.
  22. Demanze Laurence, B.; Michel, L. The Fall in Older Adults: Physical and Cognitive Problems. Curr. Aging Sci. 2017, 10, 185–200.
  23. Pinckard, K.; Baskin, K.K.; Stanford, K.I. Effects of Exercise to Improve Cardiovascular Health. Front. Cardiovasc. Med. 2019, 6, 69.
  24. Benjamin, E.J.; Virani, S.S.; Callaway, C.W.; Chamberlain, A.M.; Chang, A.R.; Cheng, S.; Chiuve, S.E.; Cushman, M.; Delling, F.N.; Deo, R. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2018 Update: A Report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2018, 137, e67–e492.
  25. Nowak, K.L.; Rossman, M.J.; Chonchol, M.; Seals, D.R. Strategies for Achieving Healthy Vascular Aging. Hypertension 2018, 71, 389–402.
  26. CALAS Team at Tel Aviv University; Cohen-Mansfield, J.; Shmotkin, D.; Blumstein, Z.; Shorek, A.; Eyal, N.; Hazan, H. The Old, Old-Old, and the Oldest Old: Continuation or Distinct Categories? An Examination of the Relationship between Age and Changes in Health, Function, and Wellbeing. Int. J. Aging Hum. Dev. 2013, 77, 37–57.
  27. Brunner, E.J.; Welch, C.A.; Shipley, M.J.; Ahmadi-Abhari, S.; Singh-Manoux, A.; Kivimäki, M. Midlife Risk Factors for Impaired Physical and Cognitive Functioning at Older Ages: A Cohort Study. J. Gerontol. Ser. A 2017, 72, 237–242.
  28. Clouston, S.A.P.; Brewster, P.; Kuh, D.; Richards, M.; Cooper, R.; Hardy, R.; Rubin, M.S.; Hofer, S.M. The Dynamic Relationship Between Physical Function and Cognition in Longitudinal Aging Cohorts. Epidemiol. Rev. 2013, 35, 33–50.
  29. Moreau, K.L.; Babcock, M.C.; Hildreth, K.L. Sex Differences in Vascular Aging in Response to Testosterone. Biol. Sex Differ. 2020, 11, 1–14.
  30. Ji, H.; Kwan, A.C.; Chen, M.T.; Ouyang, D.; Ebinger, J.E.; Bell, S.P.; Niiranen, T.J.; Bello, N.A.; Cheng, S. Sex Differences in Myocardial and Vascular Aging. Circ. Res. 2022, 130, 566–577.
  31. Dantas, A.P.; Jiménez-Altayó, F.; Vila, E. Vascular Aging: Facts and Factors. Front. Physiol. 2012, 3, 325.
  32. Shechter, M.; Issachar, A.; Marai, I.; Koren-Morag, N.; Freinark, D.; Shahar, Y.; Shechter, A.; Feinberg, M.S. Long-Term Association of Brachial Artery Flow-Mediated Vasodilation and Cardiovascular Events in Middle-Aged Subjects with No Apparent Heart Disease. Int. J. Cardiol. 2009, 134, 52–58.
  33. Yeboah, J.; Crouse, J.R.; Hsu, F.-C.; Burke, G.L.; Herrington, D.M. Brachial Flow-Mediated Dilation Predicts Incident Cardiovascular Events in Older Adults: The Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation 2007, 115, 2390–2397.
  34. Greenland, P.; Alpert, J.S.; Beller, G.A.; Benjamin, E.J.; Budoff, M.J.; Fayad, Z.A.; Foster, E.; Hlatky, M.A.; Hodgson, J.M.; Kushner, F.G. 2010 ACCF/AHA Guideline for Assessment of Cardiovascular Risk in Asymptomatic Adults: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines Developed in Collaboration with the American Socie. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010, 56, e50–e103.
  35. De Luca, M.; Iacono, O.; Valente, V.; Giardino, F.; Crisci, G.; Lettieri, M.; Marra, A.; Giallauria, F.; Oliviero, U. Can Pulse Wave Velocity (PWV) Alone Express Arterial Stiffness? A Neglected Tool for Vascular Function Assessment. J. Basic Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2021, 33, 373–379.
  36. Akazawa, N.; Choi, Y.; Miyaki, A.; Tanabe, Y.; Sugawara, J.; Ajisaka, R.; Maeda, S. Curcumin Ingestion and Exercise Training Improve Vascular Endothelial Function in Postmenopausal Women. Nutr. Res. 2012, 32, 795–799.
  37. Koshiba, H.; Maeshima, E. Effects of Exercise Intervention on Arterial Stiffness in Middle-Aged and Older Females: Evaluation by Measuring Brachial-Ankle Pulse Wave Velocity and Cardio-Ankle Vascular Index. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 2019, 31, 88–92.
  38. Bouaziz, W.; Lang, P.O.; Schmitt, E.; Leprêtre, P.M.; Lefebvre, F.; Momas, C.; Kaltenbach, G.; Geny, B.; Vogel, T. Effects of a Short-Term Interval Aerobic Training Program with Recovery Bouts on Vascular Function in Sedentary Aged 70 or over: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 2019, 82, 217–225.
  39. Headley, S.; Germain, M.; Wood, R.; Joubert, J.; Milch, C.; Evans, E.; Poindexter, A.; Cornelius, A.; Brewer, B.; Pescatello, L.S. Short-Term Aerobic Exercise and Vascular Function in CKD Stage 3: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2014, 64, 222–229.
  40. Novaković, M.; Krevel, B.; Rajkovič, U.; Cuderman, T.V.; Trontelj, K.J.; Fras, Z.; Jug, B. Moderate-Pain versus Pain-Free Exercise, Walking Capacity, and Cardiovascular Health in Patients with Peripheral Artery Disease. J. Vasc. Surg. 2019, 70, 148–156.
  41. Nualnim, N.; Parkhurst, K.; Dhindsa, M.; Tarumi, T.; Vavrek, J.; Tanaka, H. Effects of Swimming Training on Blood Pressure and Vascular Function in Adults> 50 Years of Age. Am. J. Cardiol. 2012, 109, 1005–1010.
  42. Park, S.Y.; Wong, A.; Son, W.M.; Pekas, E.J. Effects of Heated Water-Based versus Land-Based Exercise Training on Vascular Function in Individuals with Peripheral Artery Disease. J. Appl. Physiol. 2020, 128, 565–575.
  43. Park, S.-Y.; Kwak, Y.-S.; Pekas, E.J. Impacts of Aquatic Walking on Arterial Stiffness, Exercise Tolerance, and Physical Function in Patients with Peripheral Artery Disease: A Randomized Clinical Trial. J. Appl. Physiol. 2019, 127, 940–949.
  44. Pierce, G.L.; Eskurza, I.; Walker, A.E.; Fay, T.N.; Seals, D.R. Sex-Specific Effects of Habitual Aerobic Exercise on Brachial Artery Flow-Mediated Dilation in Middle-Aged and Older Adults. Clin. Sci. 2011, 120, 13–23.
  45. Veldhuijzen van Zanten, J.J.C.S.C.S.; Sandoo, A.; Metsios, G.S.; Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou, A.; Ntoumanis, N.; Kitas, G.D. Comparison of the Effects of Exercise and Anti-TNF Treatment on Cardiovascular Health in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Results from Two Controlled Trials. Rheumatol. Int. 2019, 39, 219–225.
  46. Ghardashi Afousi, A.; Izadi, M.R.; Rakhshan, K.; Mafi, F.; Biglari, S.; Gandomkar Bagheri, H. Improved Brachial Artery Shear Patterns and Increased Flow-mediated Dilatation after Low-volume High-intensity Interval Training in Type 2 Diabetes. Exp. Physiol. 2018, 103, 1264–1276.
  47. Gholami, F.; Nazari, H.; Alimi, M. Cycle Training Improves Vascular Function and Neuropathic Symptoms in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Peripheral Neuropathy: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Exp. Gerontol. 2020, 131, 110799.
  48. Kujawski, S.; Kujawska, A.; Gajos, M.; Klawe, J.J.; Tafil-Klawe, M.; Mądra-Gackowska, K.; Stankiewicz, B.; Newton, J.L.; Kędziora-Kornatowska, K.; Zalewski, P. Effects of 3-Months Sitting Callisthenic Balance and Resistance Exercise on Aerobic Capacity, Aortic Stiffness and Body Composition in Healthy Older Participants. Randomized Controlled Trial. Exp. Gerontol. 2018, 108, 125–130.
  49. O’Brien, M.W.; Johns, J.A.; Robinson, S.A.; Bungay, A.; Mekary, S.; Kimmerly, D.S. Impact of High-Intensity Interval Training, Moderate-Intensity Continuous Training, and Resistance Training on Endothelial Function in Older Adults. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2020, 52, 1057–1067.
  50. Gainey, A.; Himathongkam, T.; Tanaka, H.; Suksom, D. Effects of Buddhist Walking Meditation on Glycemic Control and Vascular Function in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. Complement. Ther. Med. 2016, 26, 92–97.
  51. Conraads, V.M.; Pattyn, N.; De Maeyer, C.; Beckers, P.J.; Coeckelberghs, E.; Cornelissen, V.A.; Denollet, J.; Frederix, G.; Goetschalckx, K.; Hoymans, V.Y. Aerobic Interval Training and Continuous Training Equally Improve Aerobic Exercise Capacity in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease: The SAINTEX-CAD Study. Int. J. Cardiol. 2015, 179, 203–210.
  52. Lee, K.; Kang, I.; Mack, W.J.; Mortimer, J.; Sattler, F.; Salem, G.; Lu, J.; Dieli-Conwright, C.M. Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training on Vascular Endothelial Function and Vascular Wall Thickness in Breast Cancer Patients Receiving Anthracycline-Based Chemotherapy: A Randomized Pilot Study. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 2019, 177, 477–485.
  53. Luk, T.-H.H.; Dai, Y.-L.L.; Siu, C.-W.W.; Yiu, K.-H.H.; Chan, H.-T.T.; Lee, S.W.L.; Li, S.-W.W.; Fong, B.; Wong, W.-K.K.; Tam, S.; et al. Effect of Exercise Training on Vascular Endothelial Function in Patients with Stable Coronary Artery Disease: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 2012, 19, 830–839.
  54. Vinet, A.; Obert, P.; Courteix, D.; Chapier, R.; Lesourd, B.; Verney, J.; Dutheil, F.; Walther, G. Different Modalities of Exercise Improve Macrovascular Function but Not Microvascular Function in Metabolic Syndrome: The RESOLVE Randomized Trial. Int. J. Cardiol. 2018, 267, 165–170.
  55. Cornelissen, V.A.; Onkelinx, S.; Goetschalckx, K.; Thomaes, T.; Janssens, S.; Fagard, R.; Verhamme, P.; Vanhees, L. Exercise-Based Cardiac Rehabilitation Improves Endothelial Function Assessed by Flow-Mediated Dilation but Not by Pulse Amplitude Tonometry. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 2014, 21, 39–48.
  56. Greenwood, S.A.; Koufaki, P.; Mercer, T.H.; Rush, R.; O’Connor, E.; Tuffnell, R.; Lindup, H.; Haggis, L.; Dew, T.; Abdulnassir, L. Aerobic or Resistance Training and Pulse Wave Velocity in Kidney Transplant Recipients: A 12-Week Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial (the Exercise in Renal Transplant Trial). Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2015, 66, 689–698.
  57. Haynes, A.; Naylor, L.H.; Spence, A.L.; Robey, E.; Cox, K.L.; Maslen, B.A.; Lautenschlager, N.T.; Carter, H.H.; Ainslie, P.N.; Green, D.J. Effects of Land versus Water Walking Interventions on Vascular Function in Older Adults. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2021, 53, 83–89.
  58. Schreuder, T.H.A.; Nyakayiru, J.; Houben, J.; Thijssen, D.H.J.; Hopman, M.T.E. Impact of Hypoxic versus Normoxic Training on Physical Fitness and Vasculature in Diabetes. High Alt. Med. Biol. 2014, 15, 349–355.
  59. Tanahashi, K.; Kosaki, K.; Sawano, Y.; Yoshikawa, T.; Tagawa, K.; Kumagai, H.; Akazawa, N.; Maeda, S. Impact of Age and Aerobic Exercise Training on Conduit Artery Wall Thickness: Role of the Shear Pattern. J. Vasc. Res. 2017, 54, 272–279.
  60. Pierce, G.L.; Harris, S.A.; Seals, D.R.; Casey, D.P.; Barlow, P.B.; Stauss, H.M. Estimated Aortic Stiffness Is Independently Associated with Cardiac Baroreflex Sensitivity in Humans: Role of Ageing and Habitual Endurance Exercise. J. Hum. Hypertens. 2016, 30, 513–520.
  61. Dall, C.H.; Gustafsson, F.; Christensen, S.B.; Dela, F.; Langberg, H.; Prescott, E. Effect of Moderate- versus High-Intensity Exercise on Vascular Function, Biomarkers and Quality of Life in Heart Transplant Recipients: A Randomized, Crossover Trial. J. Heart Lung Transplant. 2015, 34, 1033–1041.
  62. Keech, A.; Holgate, K.; Fildes, J.; Indraratna, P.; Cummins, L.; Lewis, C.; Yu, J. High-Intensity Interval Training for Patients with Coronary Artery Disease: Finding the Optimal Balance. Int. J. Cardiol. 2020, 298, 8–14.
  63. Kirkman, D.L.; Ramick, M.G.; Muth, B.J.; Stock, J.M.; Pohlig, R.T.; Townsend, R.R.; Edwards, D.G. Effects of aerobic exercise on vascular function in nondialysis chronic kidney disease: A randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Physiol. Physiol. 2019, 316, F898–F905.
  64. Schmidt, J.F.; Hansen, P.R.; Andersen, T.R.; Andersen, L.J.; Hornstrup, T.; Krustrup, P.; Bangsbo, J. Cardiovascular Adaptations to 4 and 12 Months of Football or Strength Training in 65-to 75-year-old Untrained Men. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2014, 24, 86–97.
  65. Wilkinson, I.B.; MacCallum, H.; Flint, L.; Cockcroft, J.R.; Newby, D.E.; Webb, D.J. The Influence of Heart Rate on Augmentation Index and Central Arterial Pressure in Humans. J. Physiol. 2000, 525 Pt 1, 263–270.
  66. Shirai, K.; Hiruta, N.; Song, M.; Kurosu, T.; Suzuki, J.; Tomaru, T.; Miyashita, Y.; Saiki, A.; Takahashi, M.; Suzuki, K.; et al. Cardio-Ankle Vascular Index (CAVI) as a Novel Indicator of Arterial Stiffness: Theory, Evidence and Perspectives. J. Atheroscler. Thromb. 2011, 18, 924–938.
  67. Nyberg, M.; Egelund, J.; Mandrup, C.M.; Nielsen, M.B.; Mogensen, A.S.; Stallknecht, B.; Bangsbo, J.; Hellsten, Y. Early Postmenopausal Phase Is Associated with Reduced Prostacyclin-Induced Vasodilation That Is Reversed by Exercise Training: The Copenhagen Women Study. Hypertension 2016, 68, 1011–1020.
  68. Alkhatib, A.; Klonizakis, M. Effects of Exercise Training and Mediterranean Diet on Vascular Risk Reduction in Post-Menopausal Women. Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc. 2014, 57, 33–47.
  69. Da Silva, C.A.; Ribeiro, J.P.; Canto, J.C.A.U.; da Silva, R.E.; Junior, G.B.S.; Botura, E.; Malschitzky, M.A.R. High-Intensity Aerobic Training Improves Endothelium-Dependent Vasodilation in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2012, 95, 237–245.
  70. Gliemann, L.; Tamariz-Ellemann, A.; Baasch-Skytte, T.; Ehlers, T.S.; Gunnarsson, T.P. Increased Prostacyclin Formation after High-Intensity Interval Training in Late Postmenopausal Women. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2020, 120, 1711–1720.
  71. Gunnarsson, T.P.; Ehlers, T.S.; Baasch-Skytte, T.; Lund, A.P.; Tamariz-Ellemann, A.; Gliemann, L.; Nyberg, M.; Bangsbo, J. Hypertension Is Associated with Blunted NO-Mediated Leg Vasodilator Responsiveness That Is Reversed by High-Intensity Training in Postmenopausal Women. Am. J. Physiol. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2020, 319, R712–R723.
  72. Munch, G.W.; Rosenmeier, J.B.; Petersen, M.; Rinnov, A.R.; Iepsen, U.W.; Pedersen, B.K.; Mortensen, S.P. Comparative Effectiveness of Low-Volume Time-Efficient Resistance Training versus Endurance Training in Patients with Heart Failure. J. Cardiopulm. Rehabil. Prev. 2018, 38, 175–181.
  73. Hellsten, Y.; Jensen, L.; Thaning, P.; Nyberg, M.; Mortensen, S. Impaired Formation of Vasodilators in Peripheral Tissue in Essential Hypertension Is Normalized by Exercise Training: Role of Adenosine and Prostacyclin. J. Hypertens. 2012, 30, 2007–2014.
  74. Munch, G.W.; Iepsen, U.W.; Ryrsø, C.K.; Rosenmeier, J.B.; Pedersen, B.K.; Mortensen, S.P. Effect of 6 Wk of High-Intensity One-Legged Cycling on Functional Sympatholysis and ATP Signaling in Patients with Heart Failure. Am. J. Physiol. Circ. Physiol. 2018, 314, H616–H626.
  75. Boutcher, Y.N.; Boutcher, S.H. Exercise Intensity and Hypertension: What’s New? J. Hum. Hypertens. 2017, 31, 157–164.
  76. Liu, Y.; Sun, Z.; Chen, T.; Yang, C. Does Exercise Training Improve the Function of Vascular Smooth Muscle? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Res. Sport. Med. 2021, 30, 577–592.
  77. American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2013.
  78. Pollock, M.L.; Franklin, B.A.; Balady, G.J.; Chaitman, B.L.; Fleg, J.L.; Fletcher, B.; Limacher, M.; Piña, I.L.; Stein, R.A.; Williams, M. Resistance Exercise in Individuals with and without Cardiovascular Disease: Benefits, Rationale, Safety, and Prescription an Advisory from the Committee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention, Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Associatio. Circulation 2000, 101, 828–833.
  79. Green, D.J.; Cable, N.T.; Fox, C.; Rankin, J.M.; Taylor, R.R. Modification of Forearm Resistance Vessels by Exercise Training in Young Men. J. Appl. Physiol. 1994, 77, 1829–1833.
  80. Okamoto, T.; Masuhara, M.; Ikuta, K. Effects of Muscle Contraction Timing during Resistance Training on Vascular Function. J. Hum. Hypertens. 2009, 23, 470–478.
  81. Green, D.J.; Eijsvogels, T.; Bouts, Y.M.; Maiorana, A.J.; Naylor, L.H.; Scholten, R.R.; Spaanderman, M.E.A.A.; Pugh, C.J.A.A.; Sprung, V.S.; Schreuder, T.; et al. Exercise Training and Artery Function in Humans: Nonresponse and Its Relationship to Cardiovascular Risk Factors. J. Appl. Physiol. 2014, 117, 345–352.
  82. Lekavich, C.L.; Allen, J.D.; Bensimhon, D.R.; Bateman, L.A.; Slentz, C.A.; Samsa, G.P.; Kenjale, A.A.; Duscha, B.D.; Douglas, P.S.; Kraus, W.E. Aerobic versus Resistance Training Effects on Ventricular-Arterial Coupling and Vascular Function in the STRRIDE-AT/RT Trial. Front. Cardiovasc. Med. 2021, 8, 226.
  83. Eigendorf, J.; Melk, A.; Haufe, S.; Boethig, D.; Berliner, D.; Kerling, A.; Kueck, M.; Stenner, H.; Bara, C.; Stiesch, M. Effects of Personalized Endurance Training on Cellular Age and Vascular Function in Middle-Aged Sedentary Women. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 2019, 26, 1903–1906.
  84. Jaime, S.J.; Maharaj, A.; Alvarez-Alvarado, S.; Figueroa, A. Impact of Low-Intensity Resistance and Whole-Body Vibration Training on Aortic Hemodynamics and Vascular Function in Postmenopausal Women. Hypertens. Res. 2019, 42, 1979–1988.
  85. Li, Y.; Hanssen, H.; Cordes, M.; Rossmeissl, A.; Endes, S.; Schmidt-Trucksäss, A. Aerobic, Resistance and Combined Exercise Training on Arterial Stiffness in Normotensive and Hypertensive Adults: A Review. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2015, 15, 443–457.
  86. Tinken, T.M.; Thijssen, D.H.J.; Hopkins, N.; Dawson, E.A.; Cable, N.T.; Green, D.J. Shear Stress Mediates Endothelial Adaptations to Exercise Training in Humans. Hypertension 2010, 55, 312–318.
  87. Eleutério-Silva, M.A.; Da Fonseca, L.J.S.; Velloso, E.P.P.; Da Silva Guedes, G.; Sampaio, W.O.; Da Silva, W.F.; Mota-Gomes, M.A.; Da Silva Lima, L.V.; Santos, R.A.S.; Rabelo, L.A. Short-Term Cardiovas Cular Physical Programme Ameliorates Arterial Stifnes and Decreases Oxidative Stres in Women with Metabolic Syndrome. J. Rehabil. Med. 2013, 45, 572–579.
  88. Borges, J.P.; Mendes, F.d.S.N.S.; dos Santos Rangel, M.V.; de Oliveira Lopes, G.; da Silva, G.M.S.; da Silva, P.S.; Mazzoli-Rocha, F.; Saraiva, R.M.; de Sousa, A.S.; Tibirica, E. Exercise Training Improves Microvascular Function in Patients with Chagas Heart Disease: Data from the PEACH Study. Microvasc. Res. 2021, 134, 104106.
  89. Chasland, L.C.; Naylor, L.H.; Yeap, B.B.; Maiorana, A.J.; Green, D.J. Testosterone and Exercise in Middle-to-Older Aged Men: Combined and Independent Effects on Vascular Function. Hypertension 2021, 77, 1095–1105.
  90. Greenwood, S.A.; Koufaki, P.; Mercer, T.H.; MacLaughlin, H.L.; Rush, R.; Lindup, H.; O’Connor, E.; Jones, C.; Hendry, B.M.; Macdougall, I.C. Effect of Exercise Training on Estimated GFR, Vascular Health, and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Patients with CKD: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2015, 65, 425–434.
  91. Magalhães, J.P.; Melo, X.; Correia, I.R.; Ribeiro, R.T.; Raposo, J.; Dores, H.; Bicho, M.; Sardinha, L.B. Effects of Combined Training with Different Intensities on Vascular Health in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A 1-Year Randomized Controlled Trial. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2019, 18, 1–13.
  92. Park, W.; Jung, W.-S.; Hong, K.; Kim, Y.-Y.; Kim, S.-W.; Park, H.-Y. Effects of Moderate Combined Resistance-and Aerobic-Exercise for 12 Weeks on Body Composition, Cardiometabolic Risk Factors, Blood Pressure, Arterial Stiffness, and Physical Functions, among Obese Older Men: A Pilot Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7233.
  93. Gibbs, B.B.; Dobrosielski, D.A.; Bonekamp, S.; Stewart, K.J.; Clark, J.M. A Randomized Trial of Exercise for Blood Pressure Reduction in Type 2 Diabetes: Effect on Flow-Mediated Dilation and Circulating Biomarkers of Endothelial Function. Atherosclerosis 2012, 224, 446–453.
  94. Ranadive, S.M.; Eugene, A.R.; Dillon, G.; Nicholson, W.T.; Joyner, M.J. Comparison of the Vasodilatory Effects of Sodium Nitroprusside vs. Nitroglycerin. J. Appl. Physiol. 2017, 123, 402–406.
  95. Ashor, A.W.; Lara, J.; Siervo, M.; Celis-Morales, C.; Mathers, J.C. Effects of Exercise Modalities on Arterial Stiffness and Wave Reflection: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e110034.
  96. Batrakoulis, A.; Jamurtas, A.Z.; Metsios, G.S.; Perivoliotis, K.; Liguori, G.; Feito, Y.; Riebe, D.; Thompson, W.R.; Angelopoulos, T.J.; Krustrup, P.; et al. Comparative Efficacy of 5 Exercise Types on Cardiometabolic Health in Overweight and Obese Adults: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of 81 Randomized Controlled Trials. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 2022, 15, e008243.
  97. Okamoto, T.; Masuhara, M.; Ikuta, K. Combined Aerobic and Resistance Training and Vascular Function: Effect of Aerobic Exercise before and after Resistance Training. J. Appl. Physiol. 2007, 103, 1655–1661.
  98. Kawano, H.; Tanaka, H.; Miyachi, M. Resistance Training and Arterial Compliance: Keeping the Benefits While Minimizing the Stiffening. J. Hypertens. 2006, 24, 1753–1759.
  99. Shiotsu, Y.; Watanabe, Y.; Tujii, S.; Yanagita, M. Effect of Exercise Order of Combined Aerobic and Resistance Training on Arterial Stiffness in Older Men. Exp. Gerontol. 2018, 111, 27–34.
  100. Nishiwaki, M.; Yonemura, H.; Kurobe, K.; Matsumoto, N. Four Weeks of Regular Static Stretching Reduces Arterial Stiffness in Middle-Aged Men. Springerplus 2015, 4, 1–11.
  101. Boonpim, H.; Wanpen, S.; Chanavirut, R.; Apaijit, K.; Kukongviriyapan, U.; Nakmareong, S. Reduced Arterial Stiffness and Ankle Blood Pressure Following Stretching Exercise in Postmenopausal Women. J. Physiol. Biomed. Sci. 2017, 30, 47–51.
  102. Hotta, K.; Batchelor, W.B.; Graven, J.; Dahya, V.; Noel, T.E.; Ghai, A.; Katopodis, J.N.; Dixon, W.C.; Andrews, R.; Pragle, A. Daily Passive Muscle Stretching Improves Flow-Mediated Dilation of Popliteal Artery and 6-Minute Walk Test in Elderly Patients with Stable Symptomatic Peripheral Artery Disease. Cardiovasc. Revascularization Med. 2019, 20, 642–648.
  103. Kato, M.; Masuda, T.; Ogano, M.; Hotta, K.; Takagi, H.; Tanaka, S.; Kamada, Y.; Akiyama, A.; Kamekawa, D.; Shimizu, R. Stretching Exercises Improve Vascular Endothelial Dysfunction through Attenuation of Oxidative Stress in Chronic Heart Failure Patients with an Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator. J. Cardiopulm. Rehabil. Prev. 2017, 37, 130–138.
  104. Shinno, H.; Kurose, S.; Yamanaka, Y.; Higurashi, K.; Fukushima, Y.; Tsutsumi, H.; Kimura, Y. Evaluation of a Static Stretching Intervention on Vascular Endothelial Function and Arterial Stiffness. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2017, 17, 586–592.
  105. Williams, A.D.; Ahuja, K.D.K.K.; Almond, J.B.; Robertson, I.K.; Ball, M.J. Progressive Resistance Training Might Improve Vascular Function in Older Women but Not in Older Men. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2013, 16, 76–81.
  106. Wong, A.; Figueroa, A. Eight Weeks of Stretching Training Reduces Aortic Wave Reflection Magnitude and Blood Pressure in Obese Postmenopausal Women. J. Hum. Hypertens. 2014, 28, 246–250.
  107. Kim, D.-J.; Kim, J.-H. Effects of 8-Week Rehabilitation Exercise on Vascular Health. Medico-Leg. Updat. 2019, 19, 648–653.
  108. Bisconti, A.V.; Cè, E.; Longo, S.; Venturelli, M.; Coratella, G.; Limonta, E.; Doria, C.; Rampichini, S.; Esposito, F. Evidence for Improved Systemic and Local Vascular Function after Long-term Passive Static Stretching Training of the Musculoskeletal System. J. Physiol. 2020, 598, 3645–3666.
  109. Rosenberry, R.; Nelson, M.D. Reactive Hyperemia: A Review of Methods, Mechanisms, and Considerations. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2020, 318, R605–R618.
  110. Kato, M.; Nihei Green, F.; Hotta, K.; Tsukamoto, T.; Kurita, Y.; Kubo, A.; Takagi, H. The Efficacy of Stretching Exercises on Arterial Stiffness in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized and Non-Randomized Controlled Trials. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5643.
  111. Thomas, E.; Bellafiore, M.; Gentile, A.; Paoli, A.; Palma, A.; Bianco, A. Cardiovascular Responses to Muscle Stretching: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Sports Med. 2021, 42, 481–493.
  112. Li, F.; Harmer, P.; Fitzgerald, K.; Winters-Stone, K. A Cognitively Enhanced Online Tai Ji Quan Training Intervention for Community-Dwelling Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Feasibility Trial. BMC Geriatr. 2022, 22, 1–13.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Sport Sciences
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Antonio Bovolini
,
Ana Raquel Costa-Brito
,
Faber Martins
,
Guilherme Eustáquio Furtado
,
Gonçalo V. Mendonça
,
Carolina Vila-Chã
View Times: 385
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 27 Dec 2022
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Video Production Service
    Feedback