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Hassan Ragab El-Ramady
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3 Extraction and fatty acid composition seed oil of walnut
Ibeh Kenneth Chinaecherem
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Masoodi, L.;  Gull, A.;  Masoodi, F.A.;  Gani, A.;  Nissar, J.;  Ahad, T.;  Nayik, G.A.;  Mukarram, S.A.;  Kovács, B.;  Prokisch, J.; et al. Walnut Oil. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/27633 (accessed on 22 May 2024).
Masoodi L,  Gull A,  Masoodi FA,  Gani A,  Nissar J,  Ahad T, et al. Walnut Oil. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/27633. Accessed May 22, 2024.
Masoodi, Lubna, Amir Gull, Farooq Ahmad Masoodi, Adil Gani, Jasia Nissar, Tehmeena Ahad, Gulzar Ahmad Nayik, Shaikh Ayaz Mukarram, Béla Kovács, József Prokisch, et al. "Walnut Oil" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/27633 (accessed May 22, 2024).
Masoodi, L.,  Gull, A.,  Masoodi, F.A.,  Gani, A.,  Nissar, J.,  Ahad, T.,  Nayik, G.A.,  Mukarram, S.A.,  Kovács, B.,  Prokisch, J.,  El-Ramady, H.,  Solberg, S.�., & Chinaecherem, I. (2022, September 27). Walnut Oil. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/27633
Masoodi, Lubna, et al. "Walnut Oil." Encyclopedia. Web. 27 September, 2022.
Walnut Oil
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/agronomy12102258

Walnut oil is extremely nutrient dense. It has plenty of oil and is high in fatty acids, which have positive biological properties and have a favorable impact on blood lipids and lipoproteins. Walnut oil is low in saturated fatty acids and high in unsaturated fatty acids as well as being high in other vital nutrients. Walnut oil can be extracted using traditional as well as new and green technologies.

cold press enzyme-assisted extraction microwave-assisted extraction supercritical fluid extraction

1. Introduction

The walnut (Juglans sp.) is an important temperate nut fruit in several countries, such as India. Since ancient times, walnut has been employed in human nutrition all across the world. Walnut kernels have a high protein and oil content, making them essential for human nutrition [1]. As a result, the walnut is considered a strategic species for human nutrition and is on the FAO priority plant list. Walnuts in India are found in different sizes and shapes. The Indian walnut is categorized into four categories viz., paper shelled, thin shelled, medium shelled and hard shelled [2]. The world production of walnuts exceeds almost 1,500,000 metric Mg (tons). China, the United States and Iran are the major producers, with about 25%, 20% and 11% of total global production, respectively [3]. In recent years, production in these countries has increased rapidly. India exported 1069.70 MT of walnuts to the world for the worth of INR 29.75 crores or USD 3.97 millions during the year 2021–2022 [4]; more than 90% of the country’s walnut production comes from Kashmir. The major importing countries of walnut from India are the United Arab Emirates, France, the U.K., Djibouti, Germany, and New Zealand. The major growing area in India are Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, and Arunachal Pradesh, with Jammu and Kashmir occupying the largest share in total area and production [4].
Traditionally, Kashmiri walnuts have enjoyed good demand in both domestic and international markets. Dried walnuts are preferred over fresh ones because of perishability. Walnuts can be added to breakfast cereals, baked goods, salads, pastas, and soups as a snack. The edible component of the walnut (kernel) is well known for its nutritional, health, and sensory qualities around the world. The nutritional and physiological benefits of walnuts have aided in their increasing popular demand. Walnuts are rich in many essential dietary fats as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as omega-6 and omega-3. Due to the traditional idea of “shape compensation”, walnuts have been consumed for thousands of years as the kind of nuts that are good for the brain [5]. This hypothesis has also been supported by research on walnut oil, which has anti-inflammatory qualities [6] and has been shown to improve memory in mice [7]. Due to walnut oil’s excellent nutritional value as an edible oil, study on the oil has gained popularity in recent years. Walnut oil is used extensively in traditional medicine across the globe and is recommended as a beneficial food oil in the agro-industry. Nutrition research on walnut oil primarily focuses on the effect of walnut oil in digestive illnesses [6]. Since it has strong anti-aging effect in vivo [8] and can boost antioxidant capacity [9], walnut oil is a well-known functional food entrant for treating inflammatory bowel disease [10] and ulcerative colitis [11]. In situations of reducing ulcerative colitis and inflammatory bowel disease, the anti-inflammatory activity is more prominent. Moreover, antiaging and antioxidative potentials would be more advantageous for the health consequence of preventing memory decline. The method used in walnut oil’s processing has a direct impact on its antioxidant capability [12]. As a result, the reports about the processing of walnut oil have garnered a lot of interest.
Market development efforts have intensified; as a result, walnuts are being used more in snacking, baking, and processed foods. The common methods of oil extraction may include the chemical (using a solvent) and mechanical extraction of oil from oilseeds [13]. The two categories of mechanical techniques are hot press and cold press. In the hot-press method, the influence of temperature on the breakdown of antioxidant components in the result is clearly obvious, despite the increased percentage of oil extraction [14]. The safest method for obtaining oil from oilseeds is cold pressing. In recent years, it has become widely used. The efficiency of mechanical methods may reach 80% for extracting oil, which is lower compared to that of chemical methods [15]. On the other hand, the chemical methods are often expensive and may have a risk of explosion and ignition, especially with using fire. During these processing operations to extract the edible portion (kernel), considerable quantities of broken kernels are produced. Despite their potential value, most of these broken kernels are underutilized. The use of broken kernels in the manufacturing of healthful food ingredients and high-value-added products can boost the walnut processing industry’s profitability while also addressing environmental issues. So far, no work or study has been done to that extent in view of utilizing the walnut oil in bakeries and confectionery because of the lack of infrastructure, such as transport, oil extraction, power supply, roads, mandis, and packaging and processing facilities. Walnuts have attracted the attention of nutritionists and food scientists in recent years due to the high-value fatty acids found in their edible seed oil, such as omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids [16]. Walnut oil is created from the inedible flesh and kernel bits that are removed from the shell during the shelling process. The oils of diverse walnut species are fairly similar in terms of physico-chemical characteristics. They have a subtle, nutty odor and are pale yellow in color with a greenish tinge. Every year, a lot of broken walnut kernels are produced and somehow are not properly utilized.

2. Composition of Walnut Oil

Walnut oil is a high-quality oil that is frequently used in both food and medicine [17]. Naturally, the content of walnut oil in saturated fatty acids is low, but higher in polyunsaturated fatty acids, primarily linoleic and linolenic acids (Table 1). Oleic acid is the only monounsaturated fatty acid contained in walnut oil [18]. Walnut kernels typically contain 60% oil, which depends on the cultivar and may range from 52% to 70%. The principal component of walnut oil is triacylglycerols that account for 83–95% of the total oil fraction. These triacylglycerols are made up of tri-unsaturated and non-symmetrical di-unsaturated glycerides. The fatty acids in walnut oil are mostly unsaturated, with linoleic and oleic acids present in major quantities. Linoleic acid dominates the 2-position of the triacylglycerol. Figure 1 presents some photos of a walnut tree, fruits, and its nuts.
Agronomy 12 02258 g001
Figure 1. An overview of the walnut plant; the tree of walnut, and their green fruits in the three upper photos; in the middle some sections in the green walnut fruits, and the lower right photo represents the green and manure walnut fruits. Photos by Ayaz.
Table 1. The chemical composition of walnut oil (adapted from Dufoo-Hurtado et al. [19].
Property Walnut
Specific Gravity (15 °C) 0.918
Refractive Index (25 °C) 1.45
Acid Value 0.7
Saponification Value 192
Iodine Value 152
Pollenske Value 0.2
Unsaponifiable Matter (g/100) 0.8
Solidification Value (°C) −18.0
Walnut oil contains high amounts of PUFAs (e.g., linoleic and a-linoleic acids), monounsaturated, protein, dietary fiber, phytochemicals, and micronutrients. The human body cannot synthesize PUFAs, which are considered essential in the human physiology [20]. There is a need for knowing the chemical composition of the fatty acid in walnut oil, which may depend on the grown location. The fatty acid composition varies greatly: linoleic (49.7–72%), oleic (12.7–34%), and linolenic acid (9–25%), which are derived from stearic acids (1.4–2.5%) and the saturated palmitic (5.24–8.2%) [21]. Omega-3 PUFA may play a role in the prevention of coronary heart disease, arrhythmia illnesses, and thrombotic diseases, according to epidemiological and clinical studies [22]. Walnut oil also contains some components with pharmacological and cosmo-nutraceutical characteristics, such as phytosterols and tocopherols, in significant amounts, promoting its industrial application [23].
Pectic compounds make up roughly 2% of the anhydro-galacturonic acid in the edible section of walnuts. Pectic compounds, which are a type of dietary fiber, are primarily galacturonic acid polymers that can have a variety of physiological and nutritional effects, including hypo-cholesterolemic effects, enhanced fecal sterol excretion, and the ability to bind bile salts. The walnut kernels contain substantial amounts of phosphorus, magnesium, potassium and iron. Vitamins are abundant in walnut kernels. Walnut oil includes 30–300 IU of vitamin A per 100 g of kernel, 0.22–0.45 mg thiamin, 0.10–0.16 mg riboflavin, and 0.7–1.105 mg niacin. The unripe fruits as well as the leaves of walnuts are the best sources of vitamin C. Un-ripened walnuts are said to have a vitamin C content of 2400–3700 mg 100 g−1 and their antioxidant activity is 40–50 times more than that of citrus fruits. Walnut oil contains approximately 7.3–28.7 g-tocopherol, 1.0–8.2 g-tocopherol, 205–375.8 g-tocopherol, and 28.0–62.1 g-tocopherol g−1. The amount of tocopherol in walnut oil varies between 100 and 436 mg kg−1. According to Rabrenovic et al. [16], gamma-tocopherol dominates the tocopherol fraction and accounts for 88%. The existence of gamma-tocopherol in examined walnut oils is not established [24]. Astringency, coloring, enzyme inhibition, and antioxidant capabilities have all been linked to the presence of phenolic acids in food. Some phenolic acids, such as syringic, phenylacetic, vanillic, gallic acid, protocatechuic, caffeic, and ferulic acids, are detected in defatted kernels in very modest amounts, ranging from 0.02 to 0.20 μg-g−1 of kernels.
The total sterol content ranges from 12 to 20 mg-kg−1 of oil. Sterols are physiologically active compounds that make up the majority of unsaponifiable chemicals. According to Oliveira et al. [25], the sterol fraction in walnut oils contains campesterol (2%), 5-avenasterol (7%), and -sitosterol (>85%). Furthermore, cholesterol, stigmasterol, 7-stigmasterol, and 7-avenasterol have all been detected. A yellow–brown substance called juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4,-naphthoquinone) was revealed to be a compound connected to walnut resistance to fungus-caused scab. Juglone is abundant in the unripe hulls of the nuts and in all green and growing sections of the tree. Juglone levels in kernels, on the other hand, were either very low or non-existent [25].
Walnut oil’s fatty acid makeup shows that it is prone to oxidation and rancidity [26]. Walnut oil is steady, influenced by antioxidants. In this connection, Savage et al. [27] demonstrated that walnut oil stored in the dark at ambient temperatures does not deteriorate and is moderately stable for more than four months. Walnut oil’s strong natural antioxidant (vitamin E) concentration is expected to play a key role in its long-standing storage steadiness. It has a long shelf life and has an excellent sensory attribute as well as nutritional benefits.

3. Applications of Walnut Oil

Walnut oil has recently attracted the attention of consumers and food scientists due to its high nutritional value, sensory attributes, and nutraceutical potential, and it is quickly becoming a popular food product in a number of developed and developing countries. Walnut oil (an expensive cooking oil) is used in a variety of food preparations, including cold meals, because it is a dietary supply of important fatty acids (Huffman et al., 2011) [28]. Walnut oil is edible, pale in color, has a delicate flavor and has a nutty flavor. Walnut oil is often used to make salad dressings since the oil emulsifies sauces. It is not used for cooking or the heat treatment of products because of the presence of unsaturated fatty acids (70%) that induce oxidation and a disagreeable taste as well as aroma. Walnut oil is an essential component of the nutraceutical sector as an alternative health care treatment due to its high unsaturated fatty acid content, particularly linoleic acid, oleic acid, and linolenic acid [29]. According to epidemiological studies, walnut oil not only decreases blood cholesterol, but it may also be utilized as a nutrition and health care oil (Zhao et al., 2010) [30]. In this regard, more information about the green extraction technologies in agriculture can be found in the works of Ferreira et al. [31], and Desai et al. [32].
Table 2. Overview of different extraction technologies of walnut oil with advantages and disadvantages. References are provided for the various statements.
Extraction Technology Advantages Disadvantages Refs.
Cold-Press Extraction Hydraulic extraction method
Consumes less energy
Eco-friendly
High quality oils at low temperatures		 Low Production
Hard to extract uniform quality of oil		 [33][34]
Solvent extraction Inexpensive method, but very simple
Temperature during the extraction system could be maintained		 Requires excessive extraction times Uses large amounts of extractants (solvent)
No need for agitation to accelerate extraction process
Compound sensitive to heat may be thermally decomposed		 [34][35]
Supercritical and Subcritical fluid extraction Solvent (CO2) is inexpensive
For all methods, solvent recycling could be achieved
Pure extraction yield could be obtained		 Desired compounds may loss with improper solvent selection Highly expensive because it requires specialized equipment [36][37]
Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction High efficiency for large-scale commercial applications
High oil yield, high extract quality, and reduced solvent consumption
Easy to handle with reduced working time		 This method depends totally on ultrasound unit
Oil extraction is weak
Existence of a dispersed phase may contribute to an ultrasound wave attenuation		 [38][39]
Microwave-Assisted Extraction For both laboratory and industrial scales is applicable
High returns on capital investment are expected
Less time consuming than conventional methods		 Very poor efficiency for solvents or non-polar target compounds or for extremely viscous solvents
For heat sensitive compounds is not appropriate
Difficult to operate and expensive equipment		 [40][41]
Enzyme-Assisted Extraction Higher extraction yield
Higher quality of extract
Oxidation stability
Eco-friendly		 High cost
Non-availability of enzymes on a commercial scale		 [42][43][44]

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Subjects: Agriculture, Dairy & Animal Science
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Lubna Masoodi
,
Amir Gull
,
Farooq Ahmad Masoodi
,
Adil Gani
,
Jasia Nissar
,
Tehmeena Ahad
,
Gulzar Ahmad Nayik
,
Shaikh Ayaz Mukarram
,
Béla Kovács
,
József Prokisch
,
Hassan El-Ramady
,
Svein Øivind Solberg
,
Ibeh Chinaecherem
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