Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 + 2698 word(s) 2698 2021-10-25 05:37:11 |
2 A typo was corrected. -5 word(s) 2693 2022-10-20 08:04:46 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Rushdan, A.I.; Omran, A.A.B. Wheat Based Film. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/15661 (accessed on 28 March 2024).
Rushdan AI, Omran AAB. Wheat Based Film. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/15661. Accessed March 28, 2024.
Rushdan, Ahmad Ilyas, Abdoulhdi A. Borhana Omran. "Wheat Based Film" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/15661 (accessed March 28, 2024).
Rushdan, A.I., & Omran, A.A.B. (2021, November 03). Wheat Based Film. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/15661
Rushdan, Ahmad Ilyas and Abdoulhdi A. Borhana Omran. "Wheat Based Film." Encyclopedia. Web. 03 November, 2021.
Wheat Based Film
Edit

Wheat is a grass plant of the Poaceae plants family; the scientific name of wheat plant is Triticum.  Due to its mechanical and physical properties, wheat starch, gluten, and fiber are vital in the biopolymer industry. Glycerol as a plasticizer considerably increased the elongation and water vapor permeability of wheat films. Wheat fiber developed mechanical and thermal properties as a result of various matrices; wheat gluten is water insoluble, elastic, non-toxic, and biodegradable, making it useful in biocomposite materials.

wheat biocomposite wheat starch wheat gluten wheat fiber antioxidant antimicrobial

1. Introduction

Plastic materials cause significant environmental damage and are one of humanity’s greatest issues. Petroleum-based plastics are non-biodegradable, even after a hundred years. Plastic polymers, which are created from non-renewable elements, are one of the primary causes of global warming. Biocomposite materials are the ideal choice for possibly replacing fossil-based polymers. However, biocomposite materials require further development in terms of their characteristics [1].
Improving the properties of biocomposite material is still being investigated by researchers [2][3][4][5][6][7]. There is an abundance of research on wood and non-wood plants to extract starch, gluten and fiber in order to produce bio-composite materials. The ingredients of biocomposite materials are extracted from various types of agricultural crops, such as wheat, corn, cassava, hemp, jute, kenaf and other crops [8]. The advantages that make plants more useful than other sources for biopolymers are their availability, quality and quantity. In addition, plants offer variation in physical properties such as thickness, density, water content, water absorption and water solubility. There exists a variation in chemical constituents such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and protein content in fiber, amylose and amylopectin ratio in starch [9]. Furthermore, their diversity in degree of polymerization, degree of crystallinity, water-vapor permeability and porosity make a difference in the biocomposite properties.
Wheat is a non-wood plants based fiber [10], which is planted in many countries and produces a lot of waste. Starch is the primary component of wheat, having a number of food and industrial applications [11]. In biocomposite application, wheat starch is used as biopolymer film with or without filler. Wheat fiber can be extracted from different parts of the plant to be used as reinforcement filler for either natural or synthesis matrix. Surface treatment is a method that is commonly used to clean, modify and improve the fiber surface to decrease surface tension and to improve the interaction between the fiber filler and the starch film matrix or synthesis matrix [12][13][14][15][16]. Several publications have addressed the effects of sodium hydroxide treatment on the structure and properties of natural fibers such as kenaf, flax, jute, hemp, sugar palm and wheat fiber [17][18][19][20][21][22].
Straws such as wheat, rice and rapeseed straws, which known as cereal straws, are not only highly abundant but they are also a low-cost, potential candidate to be utilized in the development of green composites [23]. Wheat is one of the crops that is most sought after, and it is widely cultivated. The source of it comes from a grass named (Triticum) that is grown in countless countries around the entire globe. The total production of wheat in 2019–2020 was 763.9 million metric tons [24] and this percentage increases yearly.
One of the co-products from the starch and bioethanol industry is wheat gluten, which is utilized in many food and non-food application. It is widely used to develop films and other Bioplastics [25][26][27][28][29]. In 36 days, the decomposition of wheat gluten takes place in aerobic fermentation and takes 50 days in farmland soil without releasing any toxic residues into the environment [30]. Wheat gluten protein has a high decomposition rate, even when it is subjected to chemical and physical treatments. Therefore, wheat gluten polymer is a perfect alternative for the development of new biodegradable polymers, because of its decomposition properties and its unique viscoelastic and gas barrier properties [31]. Furthermore, wheat gluten has been explored as a raw material for non-food applications such as biopolymers [32][33][34]. In order to develop the eco-industry on our planet, biodegradable materials such as wheat-based biocomposites, which are distinguished with unique advantages such as, renewability, availability and low-cost raw materials.
Plasticizers used with starch to create the polymeric entangled phase, by reducing intramolecular hydrogen bonding [35][36][37]. Adding plasticizer to wheat starch improves the physical and mechanical properties because plasticizer increases the flexibility of the material. There are many types of plasticizer such as, fructose, sorbitol, urea and glycerol used to improve physical and mechanical properties. Similarly, to enhance mechanical and physical properties, plasticizers have been applied in many biocomposite materials, such as corn [38][39][40], sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) starch [41], cassava [42] and rice starch [43][44].

2. Wheat Plant

Wheat is a grass plant of the Poaceae plants family; the scientific name of wheat plant is Triticum. Wheat is one of the world’s most ancient and essential cereal crops, which is grown across a wide range of climates and types of soils [45].
The main parts of the wheat plant are head spike, stem, leaves and roots. Wheat plants grow up to 2–4 feet tall. Figure 1 shows wheat plants’ main parts. The kernel of the wheat (also called the wheat berry) is the seed of the wheat plant [46], while the part that covers the kernel and protects it is called the beard; similar to all the grass plants, wheat plants stand on the stem. The leaves of wheat plants are long and comparatively thin; flog leaves are in the top of the leaves, which are responsible for the protection of the leaves. The nourishment from the soil to the plant comes through roots in the bottom of the plant [47].
Figure 1. Wheat plant main parts [48].

3. Film Preparation and Properties Characterization of Wheat Starch Based Films

There are many factors that affect biopolymer properties, including: starch type, treatment temperature, additions such as plasticizer and co-biopolymers [35].

3.1. Physical and Chemical Properties of Wheat Starch

Wheat is one of the most widely farmed crops worldwide; the type of the soil and soil-dryness conditions affects the quality of the starch and other plant parts. The gelatinization enthalpy and swelling power of moderate soil-dryness treated starch are low. When compared to well-watered conditions, however, a greater gelatinization temperature, retrogradation enthalpy, and retrogradation percentage are found. According to Weiyang Zhang et al. [49], soil dryness affects amylose structure more than amylopectin structure in wheat grains. Furthermore, moderate soil dryness improves molecular structure and functional properties of the starch. Table 1 shows a comparison between the chemical and physical structure of wheat, corn, rice and potato starches. There is no significant difference between the chemical composition of various starches.
The starch basically contains Amylose and Amylopectin. In biocomposite materials, it is important to identify the percentage of Amylose and Amylopectin, which directly affect the properties of the film or the matrix of the bio-polymer [50]. Amylose has a lower molecular weight than amylopectin; however, the high relative weight of Amylopectin reduces the mobility of polymer chains, resulting in high viscosity, whereas the linear structure of Amylose has demonstrated behavior more similar to that of conventional synthetic polymers [51]. The majority of natural starches are semicrystalline. Depending on the resource of the starch, the crystallinity of starch is around 20–45% percent. The short-branched chains in Amylopectin are mostly responsible for crystalline regain and appear as double helices with a length of around 5 nm. In the crystalline areas, the Amylopectin segments are all parallel to the big helix’s axis [52]. Since proteins and polysaccharides are the primary components of natural polymers, the structure–property relationships in these materials are determined by their interactions with water and with each other in an aquatic medium [53].
Thianming Zhu et al. [54] applied different techniques to determine the percentage of Amylose in the starch; techniques included Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), High-Performance Size-Exclusion Chromatography (HPSEC), iodine binding, and Megazyme amylose/amylopectin. Michael Ronoubigouwa Ambouroue Avaro [55] developed a method that used Tristimulus CIE Lab Values and developed a specific color board of Starch-iodine complex solution, the conversion of the regression values L*a*b* to Red, Green, Blue (RGB) values and to color hexadecimal codes. This method used a colorimeter device. A spectrophotometer is another device that can be used to detect the percentage of the Amylose by calculating the absorbent light that gets through the mixture of the starch and iodine solution [56][57][58].
Table 1. A comparison between the chemical composition and physical properties of wheat, corn, rice and potato starches [59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72].
 

Type of Starch

Parameter

Wheat Starch

Corn Starch

Rice Starch

Potato Starch

Amylose (%)

16.0–31.5

20.0–28

20–28

25–31

Amylopectin (%)

68.5–75

75–83

65–85

76–83

Ash (%)

0.20–0.29

0.32–0.62

0.17–0.19

15.95–16.05

Proteins (%)

0.40–0.46

0.38–7.7

0.33–0.38

4.26–4.82

Density (g/cm3)

1.5

1.356–1.4029

1.282

0.763

Moisture content (%)

10.65–13.3

10.45–10.82

3.60

15.98 ± 0.36

3.2. Production of Wheat Starch Based Films 

In order to produce starch-based films, starch should be isolated from granules [73], then the isolated starch is mixed with distilled water and plasticizer to prepare the slurry. Subsequently, casting and drying processes takes place.

4. Wheat Gluten-Based Film; Preparation and Characterization

Wheat Gluten (WG) is the primary protein in wheat grains [74]. Films that are made from wheat gluten have potential to develop an edible film, adhesives, binders, and biomedical substances. The main advantages of wheat gluten films include being insoluble in water, elastic in nature, and non-toxic. Gluten matrix is biodegradable and glassy, with characteristics similar to epoxy resin [75][76][77].

4.1. Production of Wheat Gluten-Based Film

Wheat-gluten based films can be produced via two common methods:

4.1.1. Wet Method

Wet-type mechanical milling is a common approach for producing nanoparticles for a variety of bio-materials, including starch and gluten [78]. For gluten, a milling process is used to obtain gluten powder. The wheat gluten suspension solution is made by mixing the gluten powder with ethanol (70% aqueous ethanol). Then fibers are immersed in gluten suspension-solution. After the mixture is homogenized, the composite is dried in a vacuum air oven to allow the solvents (water and ethanol) to evaporate more quickly [79].

4.1.2. Dry Method

This method can be performed by either; (1) spreading dry powder with dry fibers in the mold, where the gluten powder will be first distributed in the mold. Next, the dry fiber preforms will be placed into the mold. Subsequently, another gluten powder layer would be added through a sieve. These steps will be repeated until the desired thickness is achieved (2), by spreading dry powder on wet fiber in the mold. In this method, fiber must be wetted again (after combing and drying), as the water will be a processing aid, after casting the gluten powder and wet fiber on the mold, the drying process needs to be conducted in dryer oven [80].

4.2. Properties Characterization of Films Based Wheat Gluten

Due to the fact that polar amino acids such as glutamic acid, aspartic acid, lysine, arginine, serine, threonine, and tyrosine are present in proteins, the addition of protein in biocomposite films improves the mechanical properties. Amino acids contain reactive groups that can be useful in cross-linking and creating covalent connections, improving the mechanical characteristics of biocomposites [81]. It has been found that proteins rich in sulfur amino acids, particularly rapeseed proteins when combined with rubber, cause a substantial enhancement of the cross-linking process. Protein-rich composites have a higher thermal resistance due to the high number of nitrogen atoms in a single polypeptide molecule [82].
Wheat-gluten films revealed lower water absorption (settled on 80% after 4000 min), this amount of water absorption is a response for (C=O, C=C) bonds existence in gluten film [83]. While the starch-based films revealed higher water absorption, which reached approximately 520% after 210 min on cassava-starch-based films [42] and 295% after 240 min on corn-starch-based films [84]. All starch-based films showed very strong water absorption capacity. However, the amount of absorbed water is different from one starch to another. This behavior is attributed to the size of starch particles, the smaller the particles the earlier and higher water absorption. Also FTIR analysis shows hydrogen bonded hydroxyl group peak more intensely with small-particle content compared to the larger particles, this explains the increase in water absorption capacity [85]. Wheat-gluten-based films, plasticized with glycerol show elongation at break in the range from 320.5–474.5%, 6.33 MPa tensile strength, while the moisture content was just about 5% [86]; the addition of a plasticizer reduces hydrogen bonding, which allows molecules to move and increase the elongation, while the high tensile appears when starch-starch hydrogen bonds overcomes starch-plasticizer bonds in a low amount of plasticizer [87]. Reinforcing wheat-gluten with flax fiber improves the tensile strength and the elastic modulus, because of the hydrogen bonding between the fiber and the protein [80][88][89][90][91]. Heat treatment of wheat gluten at temperature higher than 100 °C reduces the effect of the reinforcing filler which reflected as reduction in the Young’s modulus. This explains the reduction of wheat gluten adhesion when it is heat treated [92]. However, treating the filler with alkaline and/or silane improves adhesion between wheat gluten and filler. This surface treatment increases the mechanical properties by reducing the fiber pullout length [93] As confirmed by FTIR results, fiber chemical treatment removes lignin and hemicellulose and reduces the hydrophilic nature of the fiber and, hence, improves the interfacial adhesion between fiber and matrix [94][95]. Natural structures of bio-polymers have relatively low degradation temperatures [96]. This refers to the low energy level required to break the weak interactions between the polymer chains. To avoid undesirable decomposition of wheat-gluten-based bioplastics, hydrophobic liquids, e.g., castor or silicone oil are used [97][98]. Blending gluten with hydrophobic polymers, such as polyvinylalcohol improves the degradation temperature [25][99]. The addition of hydrophobic polymers widens the gap between the energy required to break bond interactions and the energy required to cause chains breakdown. Although wheat-gluten-based films also prepared with solution cast method, compression molding have given better properties [100]. The wheat-gluten films reinforced with fiber filler can be prepared either by wet or dry method:
Tensile strength increased when drying temperature increased at 35% RH, while it decreased when temperature increased at 70% RH [101]. N. Vo Hong et al. [77] used water as a processing aid together with the use of unidirectional flax fibers to obtain the strongest properties in the fiber direction. Pakanita Muensri et al. [102] found that lignin content in the fibers does not affect the fiber/matrix adhesion. The type of wheat proteins and compression molding conditions controls the properties of wheat-protein films [103]. To make edible films out of wheat gluten, Francisco Zubeldía et al. [104] employed the dry process. They observed that molding temperature has a greater impact on the films’ ultimate mechanical and physical properties than mixing time. This was due to increased disulfide bonding during heating, resulting in a more cross-linked polymeric network, according to the study. Further work needs to be undertaken to understand the mechanism of cross-linking wheat gluten with fillers [105].

5. Antioxidant Properties of Wheat Based Film

The inhibition of oxidation improves the stability of polymers to be effective in more applications [106]. The addition of antioxidant into films can change the structure of the film [107], where the reduction in the antioxidant impairs the resistance to degradation [108]. Antioxidant materials are added to prolong the useful life of the constituents of polymers [74][109], the polymer type and the compound formulation and the end use application are governing the selection of the correct combination of antioxidants [110]. Wheat starch–chitosan films show the highest antioxidant (α-tocopherol) capacity. However, the addition of α-tocopherol led to more heterogeneous film structure [111]. Feruloylated arabinoxylans extracted from wheat bran show high antioxidant activity in the presence of bound ferulic acid [112].

6. Antimicrobial Properties of Wheat Based Film

Antimicrobial property has received more attention recently, especially in the bio-packaging food industry [113]. It has been found that composite wheat gluten-chitosan-based films can prevent microbial growth in intermediate-moisture conditions [114], where gluten is thought to act as an antimicrobial agents carrier [115][116][117]. Organic acids, enzymes, various plant extracts, bacteriocins, and essential oils have been integrated into biopolymers as antimicrobial agents [118][119][120]. Essential oils (EOs) used in food packaging films to inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi [121][122][123]. Essential oils are natural, volatile, complex compounds with a strong odor extracted from plants [124]. They have health benefits, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties [125][126]. (EOs) used to reinforce bio-matrix composites [127], such as reinforcing corn wheat starch matrix with lemon oil, and the addition of lemon oil, significantly increased antimicrobial activity [128]. However, the addition of (EOs) concentration reduced the tensile strength, while the elongation at break does not change [129]. Potassium Sorbate (PS) has been used as an antimicrobial agent for wheat gluten films. (PS) shows antimicrobial activity, but it has been found that when the film is exposed to an absorbing medium, most of the PS is released [130]. Thymol has been added as an antimicrobial to hydroxyethyl cellulose wheat-starch-based films and the results show the film kept the same chemical properties, whereas mechanical properties improved [131].

References

  1. Omran, A.A.B.; Mohammed, A.A.B.A.; Sapuan, S.M.; Ilyas, R.A.; Asyraf, M.R.M.; Koloor, S.S.R.; Petrů, M. Micro- and Nanocellulose in Polymer Composite Materials: A Review. Polymers 2021, 13, 231.
  2. Nurazzi, N.M.; Asyraf, M.R.M.; Khalina, A.; Abdullah, N.; Aisyah, H.A.; Rafiqah, S.A.; Sabaruddin, F.A.; Kamarudin, S.H.; Norrrahim, M.N.F.; Ilyas, R.A.; et al. A Review on Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composite for Bullet Proof and Ballistic Applications. Polymers 2021, 13, 646.
  3. Alsubari, S.; Zuhri, M.Y.M.; Sapuan, S.M.; Ishak, M.R.; Ilyas, R.A.; Asyraf, M.R.M. Potential of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites in sandwich structures: A review on its mechanical properties. Polymers 2021, 13, 423.
  4. Diyana, Z.N.; Jumaidin, R.; Selamat, M.Z.; Ghazali, I.; Julmohammad, N.; Huda, N.; Ilyas, R.A. Physical Properties of Thermoplastic Starch Derived from Natural Resources and Its Blends: A Review. Polymers 2021, 13, 1396.
  5. Mohd Nurazzi, N.; Asyraf, M.R.M.; Khalina, A.; Abdullah, N.; Sabaruddin, F.A.; Kamarudin, S.H.; Ahmad, S.; Mahat, A.M.; Lee, C.L.; Aisyah, H.A.; et al. Fabrication, Functionalization, and Application of Carbon Nanotube-Reinforced Polymer Composite: An Overview. Polymers 2021, 13, 1047.
  6. Ilyas, R.A.; Sapuan, S.M.; Harussani, M.M.; Hakimi, M.Y.A.Y.; Haziq, M.Z.M.; Atikah, M.S.N.; Asyraf, M.R.M.; Ishak, M.R.; Razman, M.R.; Nurazzi, N.M.; et al. Polylactic Acid (PLA) Biocomposite: Processing, Additive Manufacturing and Advanced Applications. Polymers 2021, 13, 1326.
  7. Supian, A.B.M.; Sapuan, S.M.; Jawaid, M.; Zuhri, M.Y.M.; Ilyas, R.A.; Syamsir, A. Crashworthiness Response of Filament Wound Kenaf/Glass Fibre-reinforced Epoxy Composite Tubes with Influence of Stacking Sequence under Intermediate-velocity Impact Load. Fibers Polym. 2021, 1–12.
  8. Simon, F.; Loussert-Ajaka, I.; Damond, F.; Saragosti, S.; Barin, F.; Brun-Vézinet, F. A REVIEW ON NATURAL FIBERS. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1996, 12, 1427–1433.
  9. Nam, S.; Netravali, A.N. Green composites. I. physical properties of ramie fibers for environment-friendly green composites. Fibers Polym. 2006, 7, 372–379.
  10. Ramesh, M.; Palanikumar, K.; Reddy, K.H. Plant fibre based bio-composites: Sustainable and renewable green materials. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 79, 558–584.
  11. Shevkani, K.; Singh, N.; Bajaj, R.; Kaur, A. Wheat starch production, structure, functionality and applications—a review. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2017, 52, 38–58.
  12. Liu, W.; Mohanty, A.K.; Askeland, P.; Drzal, L.T.; Misra, M. Influence of fiber surface treatment on properties of Indian grass fiber reinforced soy protein based biocomposites. Polymer 2004, 45, 7589–7596.
  13. Bledzki, A.K.; Gassan, J. Composites reinforced with cellulose based fibers. Prog. Polym. Sci. 1999, 24, 221–274.
  14. Norrrahim, M.N.F.; Huzaifah, M.R.M.; Farid, M.A.A.; Shazleen, S.S.; Misenan, M.S.M.; Yasim-Anuar, T.A.T.; Naveen, J.; Nurazzi, N.M.; Rani, M.S.A.; Hakimi, M.I.; et al. Greener Pretreatment Approaches for the Valorisation of Natural Fibre Biomass into Bioproducts. Polymers 2021, 13, 2971.
  15. Nurazzi, N.M.; Sabaruddin, F.A.; Harussani, M.M.; Kamarudin, S.H.; Rayung, M.; Asyraf, M.R.M.; Aisyah, H.A.; Norrrahim, M.N.F.; Ilyas, R.A.; Abdullah, N.; et al. Mechanical Performance and Applications of CNTs Reinforced Polymer Composites—A Review. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 2186.
  16. Chan, J.X.; Wong, J.F.; Petrů, M.; Hassan, A.; Nirmal, U.; Othman, N.; Ilyas, R.A. Effect of Nanofillers on Tribological Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites: A Review on Recent Development. Polymers 2021, 13, 2867.
  17. Sreenivasan, S.; Iyer, P.B.; Iyer, K.R.K. Influence of delignification and alkali treatment on the fine structure of coir fibres (Cocos Nucifera). J. Mater. Sci. 1996, 31, 721–726.
  18. Gassan, J.; Bledzki, A.K. Alkali Treatment of Jute Fibers: Relationship Between. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1998, 71, 623–629.
  19. Janker-Obermeier, I.; Sieber, V.; Faulstich, M.; Schieder, D. Solubilization of hemicellulose and lignin from wheat straw through microwave-assisted alkali treatment. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 39, 198–203.
  20. Ilyas, R.A.; Sapuan, S.M.; Atikah, M.S.N.; Asyraf, M.R.M.; Rafiqah, S.A.; Aisyah, H.A.; Nurazzi, N.M.; Norrrahim, M.N.F. Effect of hydrolysis time on the morphological, physical, chemical, and thermal behavior of sugar palm nanocrystalline cellulose ( Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr ). Text. Res. J. 2021, 91, 152–167.
  21. Ilyas, R.A.; Sapuan, S.M.; Ishak, M.R.; Zainudin, E.S. Sugar palm nanofibrillated cellulose (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr): Effect of cycles on their yield, physic-chemical, morphological and thermal behavior. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 123, 379–388.
  22. Ahmad Ilyas, R.; Mohd Sapuan, S.; Ibrahim, R.; Abral, H.; Ishak, M.R.; Zainudin, E.S.; Asrofi, M.; Siti Nur Atikah, M.; Muhammad Huzaifah, M.R.; Radzi, M.A.; et al. Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr)cellulosic fibre hierarchy: A comprehensiveapproach from macro to nano scale. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2019, 8, 2753–2766.
  23. Zhao, L.; Xia, W.; Tarverdi, K.; Song, J. Biocomposite boards from wheat straw without addition of bonding agent. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2014, 30, 603–610.
  24. USDA. World agricultural production. Ekon. APK 2021. Available online: https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/world-agricultural-production (accessed on 14 August 2021).
  25. Dicharry, R.M.; Ye, P.; Saha, G.; Waxman, E.; Asandei, A.D.; Parnas, R.S. Wheat gluten-thiolated poly(vinyl alcohol) blends with improved mechanical properties. Biomacromolecules 2006, 7, 2837–2844.
  26. Yang, Z.; Peng, H.; Wang, W.; Liu, T. Crystallization behavior of poly(ε-caprolactone)/layered double hydroxide nanocomposites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2010, 116, 2658–2667.
  27. Gällstedt, M.; Mattozzi, A.; Johansson, E.; Hedenqvist, M.S. Transport and Tensile Properties of Compression-Molded Wheat Gluten Films. Biomacromolecules 2004, 5, 2020–2028.
  28. Kunanopparat, T.; Menut, P.; Morel, M.-H.; Guilbert, S. Reinforcement of plasticized wheat gluten with natural fibers: From mechanical improvement to deplasticizing effect. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2008, 39, 777–785.
  29. Zárate-Ramírez, L.S.; Martínez, I.; Romero, A.; Partal, P.; Guerrero, A. Wheat gluten-based materials plasticised with glycerol and water by thermoplastic mixing and thermomoulding. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2011, 91, 625–633.
  30. Domenek, S.; Feuilloley, P.; Gratraud, J.; Morel, M.-H.; Guilbert, S. Biodegradability of wheat gluten based bioplastics. Chemosphere 2004, 54, 551–559.
  31. Edwin, A.; Habeych, N. Development of Starch-Based Materials; Wageningen University: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2009; ISBN 9789085854333.
  32. Woerdeman, D.L.; Veraverbeke, W.S.; Parnas, R.S.; Johnson, D.; Delcour, J.A.; Verpoest, I.; Plummer, C.J.G. Designing New Materials from Wheat Protein. Biomacromolecules 2004, 5, 1262–1269.
  33. Lagrain, B.; Goderis, B.; Brijs, K.; Delcour, J.A. Molecular Basis of Processing Wheat Gluten toward Biobased Materials. Biomacromolecules 2010, 11, 533–541.
  34. Jansens, K.J.A.; Vo, N.; Telen, L.; Brijs, K.; Lagrain, B.; Willem, A.; Vuure, V.; Van Acker, K.; Verpoest, I.; Van Puyvelde, P.; et al. Effect of molding conditions and moisture content on the mechanical properties of compression molded glassy, wheat gluten bioplastics. Ind. Crops Prod. 2013, 44, 480–487.
  35. Thakur, R.; Pristijono, P.; Scarlett, C.J.; Bowyer, M.; Singh, S.P.; Vuong, Q.V. Starch-based films: Major factors affecting their properties. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 132, 1079–1089.
  36. Punia Bangar, S.; Nehra, M.; Siroha, A.K.; Petrů, M.; Ilyas, R.A.; Devi, U.; Devi, P. Development and Characterization of Physical Modified Pearl Millet Starch-Based Films. Foods 2021, 10, 1609.
  37. Kumari, N.; Bangar, S.P.; Petrů, M.; Ilyas, R.A.; Singh, A.; Kumar, P. Development and Characterization of Fenugreek Protein-Based Edible Film. Foods 2021, 10, 1976.
  38. Isotton, F.S.; Bernardo, G.L.; Baldasso, C.; Rosa, L.M.; Zeni, M. The plasticizer effect on preparation and properties of etherified corn starchs films. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 76, 717–724.
  39. Ibrahim, M.I.J.; Sapuan, S.M.; Zainudin, E.S.; Zuhri, M.Y.M. Physical, thermal, morphological, and tensile properties of cornstarch-based films as affected by different plasticizers. Int. J. Food Prop. 2019, 22, 925–941.
  40. Ibrahim, M.I.J.; Sapuan, S.M.; Zainudin, E.S.; Zuhri, M.Y.M. Preparation and characterization of cornhusk/sugar palm fiber reinforced Cornstarch-based hybrid composites. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2020, 9, 200–211.
  41. Sanyang, M.; Sapuan, S.; Jawaid, M.; Ishak, M.; Sahari, J. Effect of Plasticizer Type and Concentration on Tensile, Thermal and Barrier Properties of Biodegradable Films Based on Sugar Palm (Arenga pinnata) Starch. Polymers 2015, 7, 1106.
  42. Edhirej, A.; Sapuan, S.M.; Jawaid, M.; Zahari, N.I. Effect of various plasticizers and concentration on the physical, thermal, mechanical, and structural properties of cassava-starch-based films. Starch/Staerke 2017, 69, 1–11.
  43. Laohakunjit, N.; Noomhorm, A. Effect of Plasticizers on Mechanical and Barrier Properties of Rice Starch Film. Starch 2004, 56, 348–356.
  44. Hong-rui, C.; Hai-tao, C.; Shuang, L.; Guo-qiang, D.; Ying, Z. ScienceDirect Effect of Plasticizers on Properties of Rice Straw Fiber Film. J. Northeast Agric. Univ. 2014, 21, 67–72.
  45. Wheat | Production, Types, Nutrition, Uses, & Facts | Britannica. Available online: https://www.britannica.com/plant/wheat (accessed on 14 August 2021).
  46. A Kernel of Wheat | National Festival of Breads. Available online: https://nationalfestivalofbreads.com/nutrition-education/a-kernel-of-wheat (accessed on 14 August 2021).
  47. The Parts of a Wheat Plant. Available online: https://sciencing.com/the-parts-of-a-wheat-plant-12211988.html (accessed on 14 August 2021).
  48. Wheat — Louisiana Ag in the Classroom, Reproduced with the permission of Louisiana Agriculture in the Classroom. Available online: https://aitcla.org/wheat (accessed on 14 August 2021).
  49. Zhang, W.; Gu, J.; Wang, Z.; Wei, C.; Yang, J.; Zhang, J. Comparison of Structural and Functional Properties of Wheat Starch under Different Soil Drought Conditions. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 1–18.
  50. Jha, P.; Dharmalingam, K.; Nishizu, T.; Katsuno, N.; Anandalakshmi, R. Effect of Amylose–Amylopectin Ratios on Physical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties of Starch-Based Bionanocomposite Films Incorporated with CMC and Nanoclay. Starch/Staerke 2020, 72, 1–9.
  51. Jiang, T.; Duan, Q.; Zhu, J.; Liu, H.; Yu, L. Starch-based biodegradable materials: Challenges and opportunities. Adv. Ind. Eng. Polym. Res. 2020, 3, 8–18.
  52. Liu, H.; Yu, L.; Simon, G.; Zhang, X.; Dean, K.; Chen, L. Effect of annealing and pressure on microstructure of cornstarches with different amylose/amylopectin ratios. Carbohydr. Res. 2009, 344, 350–354.
  53. Yu, L.; Dean, K.; Li, L. Polymer blends and composites from renewable resources. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2006, 31, 576–602.
  54. Zhu, T.; Jackson, D.S.; Wehling, R.L.; Geera, B. Comparison of amylose determination methods and the development of a dual wavelength iodine binding technique. Cereal Chem. 2008, 85, 51–58.
  55. Avaro, M.R.A.; Pan, Z.; Yoshida, T.; Wada, Y. Two Alternative Methods to Predict Amylose Content of Rice Grain by Using Tristimulus CIE Lab Values and Developing a Specific Color Board Of Starch-Iodine Complex Solution. Plant Prod. Sci. 2011, 14, 164–168.
  56. Jian, Y.; Xiaorong, Y.; Zhaoci, W.; Xiarong, Y.; Zhaoci, W. Research on method for determination of amylose content in rice. Proc. 7th Int. Work. Conf. Stored-Product Prot. 1998, 2, 1710–1714.
  57. Boonpo, S.; Kungwankunakorn, S. Study on Amylose Iodine Complex from Cassava Starch by Colorimetric Method. J. Adv. Agric. Technol. 2017, 4, 345–349.
  58. Landers, P.S.; Gbur, E.E.; Sharp, R.N. Comparison of Two Models to Predict Amylose Concentration in Rice Flours as Determined by Spectrophotometric Assay. Cereal Chem. 1991, 68, 545–548.
  59. Cauvain, S.P. Bread Making: Improving Quality; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2003; ISBN 9781855735538.
  60. Chen, X.; He, X.; Fu, X.; Huang, Q. In vitro digestion and physicochemical properties of wheat starch/flour modified by heat-moisture treatment. J. Cereal Sci. 2015, 63, 109–115.
  61. Chen, G.X.; Zhou, J.W.; Liu, Y.L.; Lu, X.B.; Han, C.X.; Zhang, W.Y.; Xu, Y.H.; Yan, Y.M. Biosynthesis and Regulation of Wheat Amylose and Amylopectin from Proteomic and Phosphoproteomic Characterization of Granule-binding Proteins. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 33111.
  62. Qiu, S.; Yadav, M.P.; Liu, Y.; Chen, H.; Tatsumi, E.; Yin, L. Effects of corn fiber gum with different molecular weights on the gelatinization behaviors of corn and wheat starch. Food Hydrocoll. 2016, 53, 180–186.
  63. De Pilli, T.; Legrand, J.; Derossi, A.; Severini, C. Effect of proteins on the formation of starch-lipid complexes during extrusion cooking of wheat flour with the addition of oleic acid. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 50, 515–521.
  64. Wang, S.; Luo, H.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, Y.; He, Z.; Wang, S. Alkali-induced changes in functional properties and in vitro digestibility of wheat starch: The role of surface proteins and lipids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 3636–3643.
  65. Dengate, H.N.; Baruch, D.W.; Meredith, P. The Density of Wheat Starch Granules: A Tracer Dilution Procedure for Determining the Density of an Immiscible Dispersed Phase. Starch-Stärke 1978, 30, 80–84.
  66. Jang, J.K.; Pyun, Y.R. Effect of moisture content on the melting of wheat starch. Starch/Staerke 1996, 48, 48–51.
  67. Bertoft, E. Understanding starch structure: Recent progress. Agronomy 2017, 7, 56.
  68. Zakaria, N.H.; Muhammad, N.; Abdullah, M.M.A.B. Potential of Starch Nanocomposites for Biomedical Applications. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2017, 209, 012087.
  69. Yoo, S.H.; Chang, Y.H. Effect of tara gum addition on steady and dynamic shear rheological properties of rice starch isolated from the Korean rice variety “Boramchan”. Prev. Nutr. Food Sci. 2018, 23, 254–259.
  70. Puncha-arnon, S.; Uttapap, D. Rice starch vs. rice flour: Differences in their properties when modified by heat-moisture treatment. Carbohydr. Polym. 2013, 91, 85–91.
  71. Tharise, N.; Julianti, E.; Nurminah, M. Evaluation of physico-chemical and functional properties of composite flour from cassava, rice, potato, soybean and xanthan gum as alternative of wheat flour. Int. Food Res. J. 2014, 21, 1641–1649.
  72. Marichelvam, M.K.; Jawaid, M.; Asim, M. Corn and Rice Starch-Based Bio-Plastics as Alternative Packaging Materials. Fibers 2019, 7, 32.
  73. Gifuni, I.; Olivieri, G.; Krauss, I.R.; D’Errico, G.; Pollio, A.; Marzocchella, A. Microalgae as new sources of starch: Isolation and characterization of microalgal starch granules. Chem. Eng. Trans. 2017, 57, 1423–1428.
  74. Pouplin, M.; Redl, A.; Gontard, N. Glass transition of wheat gluten plasticized with water, glycerol, or sorbitol. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47, 538–543.
  75. Patni, N.; Yadava, P.; Agarwal, A.; Maroo, V. Study on Wheat Gluten Biopolymer: A Novel Way to Eradicate Plastic Waste. Indian J. Appl. Res. 2011, 3, 253–255.
  76. ROY, S.B.; SHIT, D.S.C.; SEN GUPTA, D.R.A.; SHUKLA, D.P.R. A Review on Bio-Composites: Fabrication, Properties and Applications. Int. J. Innov. Res. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2014, 03, 16814–16824.
  77. Vo Hong, N.; Van Puyvelde, P.; Van Vuure, A.W.; Verpoest, I. Preparation of biocomposites based on gluten resin and unidirectional flax fibers. In Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Composite Materials (ECCM 2012), Venice, Italy, 24–28 June 2012.
  78. Hou, T.H.; Su, C.H.; Liu, W.L. Parameters optimization of a nano-particle wet milling process using the Taguchi method, response surface method and genetic algorithm. Powder Technol. 2007, 173, 153–162.
  79. Krieger, K.M.; Duvick, S.A.; Pollak, L.M.; White, P.J. Thermal properties of corn starch extracted with different blending methods: Microblender and homogenizer. Cereal Chem. 1997, 74, 553–555.
  80. Hong, N.V.; Pyka, G.; Wevers, M.; Goderis, B.; Van Puyvelde, P.; Verpoest, I.; Van Vuure, A.W. Processing rigid wheat gluten biocomposites for high mechanical performance. Compos. Part A 2015, 79, 74–81.
  81. Kim, J.T.; Netravali, A.N. Mechanical, thermal, and interfacial properties of green composites with ramie fiber and soy resins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 5400–5407.
  82. Zelaziński, T.; Słoma, J.; Skudlarski, J.; Ekielski, A. The rape pomace and microcrystalline cellulose composites made by press processing. Sustainability 2020, 12, 1311.
  83. Hemsri, S.; Thongpin, C.; Supatti, N.; Manomai, P.; Socharoentham, A. Bio-based Blends of Wheat Gluten and Maleated Natural Rubber: Morphology, Mechanical Properties and Water Absorption. Energy Procedia 2016, 89, 264–273.
  84. Edhirej, A.; Sapuan, S.M.; Jawaid, M.; Zahari, N.I. Cassava/sugar palm fiber reinforced cassava starch hybrid composites: Physical, thermal and structural properties. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2017, 101, 75–83.
  85. Lee, J.; Cousineau, A. Production and Characterization of Wheat Gluten Films. Master’s Thesis, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, 2012.
  86. Mojumdar, S.C.; Moresoli, C.; Simon, L.C.; Legge, R.L. Edible wheat gluten (WG) protein films. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2011, 104, 929–936.
  87. Tarique, J.; Sapuan, S.M.; Khalina, A. Effect of glycerol plasticizer loading on the physical, mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) starch biopolymers. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 1–17.
  88. Dou, Y.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, B.; He, M.; Shi, W.; Yang, S.; Cui, Y.; Yin, G. Preparation and characterization of edible dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose crosslinked feather keratin films for food packaging. Polymers 2020, 12, 158.
  89. Ye, P.; Reitz, L.; Horan, C.; Parnas, R. Manufacture and biodegradation of wheat gluten/basalt composite material. J. Polym. Environ. 2006, 14, 1–7.
  90. Reddy, N.; Yang, Y. Biocomposites developed using water-plasticized wheat gluten as matrix and jute fibers as reinforcement. Polym. Int. 2011, 60, 711–716.
  91. Muneer, F.; Johansson, E.; Hedenqvist, M.S.; Gällstedt, M.; Newson, W.R. Preparation, properties, protein cross-linking and biodegradability of plasticizer-solvent free hemp fibre reinforced wheat gluten, glutenin, and gliadin composites. BioResources 2014, 9, 5246–5261.
  92. Kunanopparat, T.; Menut, P.; Morel, M.H.; Guilbert, S. Plasticized wheat gluten reinforcement with natural fibers: Effect of thermal treatment on the fiber/matrix adhesion. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2008, 39, 1787–1792.
  93. Hemsri, S.; Grieco, K.; Asandei, A.D.; Parnas, R.S. Wheat gluten composites reinforced with coconut fiber. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2012, 43, 1160–1168.
  94. Nguyen, H.D.; Thuy Mai, T.T.; Nguyen, N.B.; Dang, T.D.; Phung Le, M.L.; Dang, T.T. A novel method for preparing microfibrillated cellulose from bamboo fibers. Adv. Nat. Sci. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2013, 4, 015016.
  95. Tan, M.Y.; Nicholas Kuan, H.T.; Lee, M.C. Characterization of Alkaline Treatment and Fiber Content on the Physical, Thermal, and Mechanical Properties of Ground Coffee Waste/Oxobiodegradable HDPE Biocomposites. Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2017, 2017, 6258151.
  96. Harwalkar, C.Y.M. Thermal analysis of food carbohydrates FCA. Elsevier Applied Science: London, UK, 1990; pp. 168–222.
  97. Rouilly, A.; Rigal, L. Agro-materials: A bibliographic review. J. Macromol. Sci.-Polym. Rev. 2002, 42, 441–479.
  98. Song, Y.; Zheng, Q. Improved tensile strength of glycerol-plasticized gluten bioplastic containing hydrophobic liquids. Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 7665–7671.
  99. Dong, J.; Dicharry, R.; Waxman, E.; Parnas, R.S.; Asandei, A.D. Imaging and thermal studies of wheat gluten/poly(vinyl alcohol) and wheat gluten/thiolated poly(vinyl alcohol) blends. Biomacromolecules 2008, 9, 568–573.
  100. Mangavel, C.; Rossignol, N.; Perronnet, A.; Barbot, J.; Popineau, Y.; Guéguen, J. Properties and microstructure of thermo-pressed wheat gluten films: A comparison with cast films. Biomacromolecules 2004, 5, 1596–1601.
  101. Kayserilioǧlu, B.Ş.; Bakir, U.; Yilmaz, L.; Akkaş, N. Drying temperature and relative humidity effects on wheat gluten film properties. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 964–968.
  102. Muensri, P.; Kunanopparat, T.; Menut, P.; Siriwattanayotin, S. Composites: Part A Effect of lignin removal on the properties of coconut coir fiber / wheat gluten biocomposite. Compos. Part A 2011, 42, 173–179.
  103. Chen, L.; Reddy, N.; Wu, X.; Yang, Y. Thermoplastic films from wheat proteins. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 35, 70–76.
  104. Zubeldía, F.; Ansorena, M.R.; Marcovich, N.E. Wheat gluten films obtained by compression molding. Polym. Test. 2015, 43, 68–77.
  105. Gianibelli, M.C.; Larroque, O.R.; MacRitchie, F.; Wrigley, C.W. Biochemical, genetic, and molecular characterization of wheat glutenin and its component subunits. Cereal Chem. 2001, 78, 635–646.
  106. Nagarajan, S.; Nagarajan, R.; Kumar, J.; Salemme, A.; Togna, A.R.; Saso, L.; Bruno, F. Antioxidant activity of synthetic polymers of phenolic compounds. Polymers 2020, 12, 1646.
  107. Eça, K.S.; Sartori, T.; Menegalli, F.C. Films and edible coatings containing antioxidants—A review. Braz. J. Food Technol. 2014, 17, 98–112.
  108. Abd El-Ghaffar, M.A.; Shaffei, K.A.; Abdelwahab, N. Evaluation of some conducting polymers as novel antioxidants for rubber vulcanizates. Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2014, 2014, 893542.
  109. Jacob, J.; Thomas, S.; Loganathan, S.; Valapa, R.B. Chapter 10—Antioxidant incorporated biopolymer composites for active packaging. In Processing and Development of Polysaccharide-Based Biopolymers for Packaging Applications; Zhang, Y., Ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 239–260. ISBN 978-0-12-818795-1.
  110. Cheremisinoff, N.P. Condensed Encyclopedia of polymer Engineering Terms. Choice Rev. Online 2001, 39, 1288.
  111. Bonilla, J.; Talón, E.; Atarés, L.; Vargas, M.; Chiralt, A. Effect of the incorporation of antioxidants on physicochemical and antioxidant properties of wheat starch-chitosan films. J. Food Eng. 2013, 118, 271–278.
  112. Yilmaz-Turan, S.; Jiménez-Quero, A.; Menzel, C.; de Carvalho, D.M.; Lindström, M.E.; Sevastyanova, O.; Moriana, R.; Vilaplana, F. Bio-based films from wheat bran feruloylated arabinoxylan: Effect of extraction technique, acetylation and feruloylation. Carbohydr. Polym. 2020, 250, 116916.
  113. Díez-Pascual, A.M. Antimicrobial polymer-based materials for food packaging applications. Polymers 2020, 12, 731.
  114. Park, S.-K.; Bae, D.H. Antimicrobial properties of wheat gluten-chitosan composite film in intermediate-moisture food systems. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2006, 15, 133–137.
  115. Güçbilmez, Ç.M.; Yemenicioǧlu, A.; Arslanoǧlu, A. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of edible zein films incorporated with lysozyme, albumin proteins and disodium EDTA. Food Res. Int. 2007, 40, 80–91.
  116. Pintado, C.; Ferreira, S.; Sousa, I. Properties of Whey Protein-Based Films Containing Organic Acids and Nisin To Control Listeria monocytogenes. J. Food Prot. 2009, 72, 1891–1896.
  117. Türe, H.; Eroglu, E.; Soyer, F.; Özen, B. Antifungal activity of biopolymers containing natamycin and rosemary extract against Aspergillus niger and Penicillium roquefortii. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2008, 43, 2026–2032.
  118. Pranoto, Y.; Rakshit, S.K.; Salokhe, V.M. Enhancing antimicrobial activity of chitosan films by incorporating garlic oil, potassium sorbate and nisin. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2005, 38, 859–865.
  119. Seydim, A.C.; Sarikus, G. Antimicrobial activity of whey protein based edible films incorporated with oregano, rosemary and garlic essential oils. Food Res. Int. 2006, 39, 639–644.
  120. Sivarooban, T.; Hettiarachchy, N.S.; Johnson, M.G. Physical and antimicrobial properties of grape seed extract, nisin, and EDTA incorporated soy protein edible films. Food Res. Int. 2008, 41, 781–785.
  121. Iamareerat, B.; Singh, M.; Sadiq, M.B.; Anal, A.K. Reinforced cassava starch based edible film incorporated with essential oil and sodium bentonite nanoclay as food packaging material. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 55, 1953–1959.
  122. Acevedo-Fani, A.; Salvia-Trujillo, L.; Rojas-Graü, M.A.; Martín-Belloso, O. Edible films from essential-oil-loaded nanoemulsions: Physicochemical characterization and antimicrobial properties. Food Hydrocoll. 2015, 47, 168–177.
  123. Ribeiro-Santos, R.; Andrade, M.; Sanches-Silva, A. Application of encapsulated essential oils as antimicrobial agents in food packaging. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 2017, 14, 78–84.
  124. Kan, Y.; Chen, T.; Wu, Y.; Wu, J.; Wu, J. Antioxidant activity of polysaccharide extracted from Ganoderma lucidum using response surface methodology. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2015, 72, 151–157.
  125. Atarés, L.; Chiralt, A. Essential oils as additives in biodegradable films and coatings for active food packaging. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 48, 51–62.
  126. Viuda-Martos, M.; El Gendy, A.E.N.G.S.; Sendra, E.; Fernández-López, J.; El Razik, K.A.A.; Omer, E.A.; Pérez-Alvarezj, J.A. Chemical composition and antioxidant and anti-Listeria activities of essential oils obtained from some Egyptian plants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 9063–9070.
  127. Syafiq, R.; Sapuan, S.M.; Zuhri, M.Y.M.; Ilyas, R.A.; Nazrin, A.; Sherwani, S.F.K.; Khalina, A. Antimicrobial activities of starch-based biopolymers and biocomposites incorporated with plant essential oils: A review. Polymers 2020, 12, 2403.
  128. Song, X.; Zuo, G.; Chen, F. Effect of essential oil and surfactant on the physical and antimicrobial properties of corn and wheat starch films. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018, 107, 1302–1309.
  129. Jamróz, E.; Juszczak, L.; Kucharek, M. Investigation of the physical properties, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of ternary potato starch-furcellaran-gelatin films incorporated with lavender essential oil. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018, 114, 1094–1101.
  130. Türe, H.; Gällstedt, M.; Hedenqvist, M.S. Antimicrobial compression-moulded wheat gluten films containing potassium sorbate. Food Res. Int. 2012, 45, 109–115.
  131. Khairuddin, N.; Muhamad, I.I.; Abd Rahman, W.A.W.; Siddique, B.M. Physicochemical and thermal characterization of hydroxyethyl cellulose—Wheat starch based films incorporated thymol intended for active packaging. Sains Malays. 2020, 49, 323–333.
More
Information
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register : ,
View Times: 709
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 20 Oct 2022
1000/1000