Antifungal Essential Oils of Lamiaceae: Comparison
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Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Vivi Li and Version 1 by Tomasz M. Karpinski.

The incidence of fungal infections has been steadily increasing in recent years. Systemic mycoses are characterized by the highest mortality. At the same time, the frequency of infections caused by drug-resistant strains and new pathogens e.g., Candida auris increases. An alternative to medicines may be essential oils, which can have a broad antimicrobial spectrum. Rich in the essential oils are plants from the Lamiaceae family. 

  • Labiatae
  • fungi
  • Aspergillus
  • Cryptococcus
  • Penicillium
  • dermatophytes
  • β-caryophyllene
  • sesquiterpene
  • monoterpenes
  • minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)

1. Introduction

Fungal infections belong to the most often diseases of humans. It is estimated that about 1.7 billion people (25% of the population) have skin, nail, and hair fungal infections [1]. The development of most of these infections is affected by dermatophytes, namely Trichophyton spp., Microsporum spp., and Epidermophyton  spp. [2]. Simultaneously, mucosal infections of the oral and genital tracts caused by Candida  spp. are very common. About 0.13 billion of women suffer from vulvovaginal candidiasis. On the other hand, oral candidiases are common in babies and denture wearers. Fungi also cause life-threatening systemic infections, with mortality reaching >1.6 million, which is >3-fold more than malaria [3]. Among life-threatening fungal infections prevail cryptococcosis (Cryptococcus neoformans) with >1,000,000 cases and mortality rate 20–70%, candidiasis (Candida albicans) with >400,000 cases and mortality rate 46–75%, pneumocystosis (Pneumocystis jirovecii) with >400,000 cases and mortality rate 20–80%, and aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus) with >200,000 cases and mortality rate 30–95% [1,4,5][1][4][5]. In  Table 1 are presented diseases caused by some of the most often fungal pathogens among people.
Table 1.  Fungal pathogens of humans and most often observed mycoses (based on [6,7][6][7]).
Superficial mycoses
  • Hortae werneckii (Tinea nigra)
  • Malassezia furfur (Pityriasis versicolor)
  • Piedraia hortae (Black piedra)
  • Trichosporon spp. (White piedra)
Cutaneous and subcutaneous mycoses
  • Aspergillus spp. (Onychomycosis, Keratitis)
  • Candida spp. (Tinea pedis, Tinea cruris, Onychomycosis, Keratitis)
  • Chaetomium spp. (Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis)
  • Curvularia spp. (Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis)
  • Epidermophyton spp. (Tinea pedis, Tinea cruris, Onychomycosis)
  • Exophiala spp. (Chromoblastomycosis, Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis)
  • Fonsecaea spp. (Chromoblastomycosis)
  • Fusarium spp. (Onychomycosis, Keratitis, Eumycotic mycetoma)
  • Geotrichum spp. (Onychomycosis)
  • Microsporum spp. (Tinea corporis, Tinea capitis)
  • Phaeoacremonium spp. (Eumycotic mycetoma)
  • Phialophora spp. (Chromoblastomycosis, Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis)
  • Scopulariopsis brevicaulis (Onychomycosis)
  • Sporothrix schenckii (Lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis)
  • Trichophyton spp. (Tinea pedis, Tinea corporis, Tinea cruris, Tinea capitis, Onychomycosis)
  • Trichosporon spp. (Onychomycosis)
Endemic mycoses
  • Blastomyces dermatitidis (Blastomycosis)
  • Histoplasma capsulatum (Histoplasmosis)
  • Coccidioides immitis/posadasii (Coccidioidomycosis)
  • Penicillium marneffei (Penicilliosis)
  • Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Paracoccidioidomycosis)
Opportunistic mycoses
  • Acremonium spp. (Hyalohyphomycosis-cutaneous, disseminated infection)
  • Alternaria spp. (Phaeohyphomycosis-subcutaneous, sinusitis, disseminated infection)
  • Aspergillus spp. (Allergic reactions, Aspergillosis-nasal, sinusitis, bronchial, pulmonary, systemic dissemination)
  • Bipolaris spp. (Phaeohyphomycosis-subcutaneous, sinusitis, brain abscess)
  • Candida spp. (Candidiasis-superficial mucosal, cutaneous, widespread hematogenous distribution involving target organs)
  • Cryptococcus spp. (Cryptococcosis-cutaneous, pulmonary, meningitis)
  • Curvularia spp. (Phaeohyphomycosis-subcutaneous, sinusitis, disseminated infection)
  • Fusarium spp. (Hyalohyphomycosis-cutaneous, disseminated infection)
  • Lichtheimia spp. (Mucormycosis-cutaneous, invasive)
  • Mucor spp. (Mucormycosis-cutaneous, invasive)
  • Paecilomyces spp. (Hyalohyphomycosis-cutaneous, disseminated infection)
  • Pneumocystis jirovecii (Pneumocystosis-pneumonia, extrapulmonary manifestations)
  • Rhizomucor spp. (Mucormycosis-cutaneous, invasive)
  • Rhizopus spp. (Mucormycosis-cutaneous, invasive)
  • Scedosporium spp. (Hyalohyphomycosis-cutaneous, disseminated infection)
  • Trichosporon spp. (Trichosporonosis-invasive disease)
  • Wangiella spp. (Phaeohyphomycosis-subcutaneous, sinusitis, brain abscess)
The big problem is growing drug-resistance amid fungi. Among Candida and Aspergillus species is observed resistance to azoles, e.g., to fluconazole, voriconazole, and posaconazole. Some Candida species, especially C. glabrata and C. parapsilosis,  can be echinocandin- and multidrug-resistant [8,9][8][9]. Acquired resistance to echinocandins has also been reported for yeasts C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. krusei, C. kefyr, C. lusitaniae, and C. dubliniensis [10] [10]. More than 3% of Aspergillus fumigatus  isolates are resistant to one or more azoles [11]. Polyene resistance mainly concerns amphotericin B. Resistance to this drug is observed in Fusarium spp., Trichosporon spp., Aspergillus spp., and Sporothrix schenckii [12,13] [12][13]. Resistance to amphotericin B has also been reported for C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. tropicalis [14,15,16] [14][15][16]. Cultures of some Candida species and Cryptococcus neoformans are presented in Figure 1.
Biomolecules 10 00103 g001a 550Biomolecules 10 00103 g001b 550
Figure 1. Cultures of selected yeast fungi on Sabouraud agar (Author of photos: Tomasz M. Karpiński).
The new epidemiological problem is C. auris, a multidrug-resistant organism first described in Japan in 2009 [17]. Recently, C. auris  has been reported from 36 countries from six continents [18]. About 30% of isolates demonstrate reduced susceptibility to amphotericin B, and 5% can be resistant to the echinocandins [19,20][19][20]. The estimated mortality from C. auris  fungemia range from 28% to 60% [21].
Fundamental issues are also the costs of treatment and hospitalization of patients with invasive fungal diseases. According to Drgona et al., all costs range from around €26,000 up to over €80,000 per patient [5].

2. Components of Essential Oils of Lamiaceae Family

The family Lamiaceae or Labiatae contains many valuable medicinal plants. In the family are 236 genera and between 6900 and 7200 species. To the most abundant genera belong Salvia (900 species), Scutellaria (360), Stachys (300), Plectranthus (300), Hyptis (280), Teucrium (250), Vitex (250), Thymus (220), and Nepeta  (200). Lamiaceae plants rich in essential oils have great worth in natural medicine, pharmacology, cosmetology, and aromatherapy [25][22]. The essential oils are mostly present in leaves, however, they can be found in flowers, buds, fruits, seeds, rind, wood, or roots [26][23]. Essential oils are mixtures of volatile compounds, which are secondary plant metabolites. They play a role in the defense system of higher plants [27][24]. Essential oils may contain over 300 different compounds, mainly of molecular weight below 300 [28][25]. Some oils, e.g., obtained from Lavandula, Geranium, or Rosmarinus,  contain 450 to 500 chemicals [29][26]. Among the active compounds of essential oils are various chemical classes, e.g., alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, esters, phenols, terpenes (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes), and coumarins [30,31][27][28]. To the chemical components most commonly found as the main ingredients in essential oils, among plants presented in Table 2, include β-caryophyllene (41 plants), linalool (27 plants), limonene (26), β-pinene (25), 1,8-cineole (22), carvacrol (21), α-pinene (21), p-cymene (20), γ-terpinene (20), and thymol (20) (Figure 2). Sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene seems particularly important antifungal component in the Lamiaceae family. Its activity and its derivatives, such as caryophyllene oxide is well known [134,135,136][29][30][31]. According to Bona et al. [137][32], essential oils containing high concentrations of phenolic monoterpenes (e.g., carvacrol, p-cymene, thymol) have great antifungal activities. Rich in these substances are, among others Origanum and Thymus  plants. Important antifungal chemicals often presented in Lamiaceae are also other monoterpenes as alcohol linalool and cyclic 1,8-cineole, limonene, pinenes, and terpinenes [138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41]. Table 1 shows that all of these antifungal substances are common in presented plants.
Biomolecules 10 00103 g002 550
Figure 2. Chemical formulas of ten substances the most commonly found in essential oils of Lamiaceae plants presented in Table 1.

3. Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils of Lamiaceae Family

In Table 3 are shown the antifungal activities of selected Lamiaceae essential oils. More than half of the essential oils have good activity (<1000 µg/mL) against fungi. In some cases are observed significant discrepancies between different studies. An example could be the action of essential oils from Italian Calamintha nepeta against Candida albicans. In the work of Marongiu et al. [39][42], minimal inhibitory concentrations amounted to 1.25–2.5 µg/mL, while in Božović et al. [40][43] MICs were between 780 to 12,480 µg/mL. Differences may be related to the different biochemical composition of the examined essential oils. In results presented by Marongiu et al. [39] [42] the main components of essential oils were pulegone (39.9–64.4%), piperitenone oxide (2.5–19.1%) and piperitenone (6.4–7.7%), while in Božović et al. [40][43] three main substances were pulegone (37.7–84.7%), crysanthenone (1.3–33.9%) and menthone (0.5–35.4%). Some authors have described that the content of active substances varies depending on the season. In studies of Gonçalves et al. [60] [44] in Mentha cervina  during the flowering phase in August amount of isomenthone and pulegone in essential oil amounted 8.7% and 75.1% respectively. Simultaneously, in the vegetative phase in February, the content of both components changed significantly and amounted to 77.0% for isomenthone and 12.9% for pulegone. Similarly, Al-Maskri et al. [75] [45] presented essential changes in some compounds of Ocimum basilicum essential oil between winter and summer. In the summer essential oil, there is significantly more of linalool, p-allylanisole and β-farnesene, and at the same time much less content of limonene and 1,8-cineole. In this work, a seasonal variation of chemical composition is directly related to other antifungal activities. It is particularly evident in action against Aspergillus niger, which was lower in the summer season. Zone of growth inhibition (ZOI) for winter essential oil was 21 mm and MIC > 50 µg/mL, while for summer essential oil-ZOI was 13 mm and MIC > 100 µg/mL [75][45]. Influence on the content of chemical substances in essential oils also has a method of obtaining them. Ćavar et al. [40] [43] compared the composition of oils obtained from Calamintha glandulosa  using three methods: Hydrodistillation (HD), steam distillation (SD) and aqueous reflux extraction (ARE). For example, the level of menthone was 3.3% in ARE, 4.7% in HD, and 8.3% in SD method, while for shisofuran was only 0.1% in HD and SD, and even 9.7% in ARE [40][43]. Additionally, many other factors can affect antimicrobial activity, such as amount and concentration of inoculum, type of culture medium, pH of the medium and incubation time. All these factors can affect the value of MIC [145][40]. Differences are visible in Table 2. Generally, it can be assumed that the best activity (MICs < 100) have essential oils from Clinopodium spp. (excluding C. nepeta subsp. glandulosum and C. umbrosum), Lavandula spp., Mentha spp. (excluding M. piperita), Thymbra spp., and Thymus spp. (excluding T. migricus and T. vulgaris). The highest values of MICs are presented among others for Aeollanthus suaveolens, Agastache rugosa, Lepechinia mutica, Mentha × piperita, and Salvia sclarea. Simultaneously, some essential oils have a very different activity, and MIC values differ depending on the region, chemical composition, research methodology, etc. Significant variations can be observed even in Ocimum basilicum (MICs 1–10,000), O. sanctum (MICs 0.1–500), Origanum majorana (MICs 0.5–14,400) or in Thymus vulgaris (MICs 0.08–3600).
Table 3. Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of essential oils against fungi.
Source of the Essential OilTargeted FungusMICs (µg/mL; µl/mL)Reference(s)
Aeollanthus suaveolens
 Mart. ex Spreng. = 
A. heliotropioides
 Oliv.
Candida albicans1200–5000[34]
1200–5000[46]
Candida glabrata5000[34]
5000[46]
Candida krusei2500[34]
2500[46]
Candida parapsilosis2500[
2500
34]
[46]
Candida tropicalis1200[34]
1200[46]
Cryptococcus neoformans600–5000[34]
600–5000[46]
Agastache rugosa
 (Fisch. and C.A.Mey.) Kuntze
Aspergillus flavus10,000[153]
10,000[47]
Aspergillus niger5000[153]
5000[47]
Blastoschizomyces capitatus5000[153]
5000[47]
Candida albicans28–5000[153,154]
28–5000[47][48]
Candida utilis5000[153]
5000[47]
Candida tropicalis5000[153]
5000[47]
Cryptococcus neoformans10,000[153]
10,000[47]
Trichoderma viride5000[153]
5000[47]
Trichophyton erinacei780[153]
780[47]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes3120[153]
3120[47]
Trichophyton rubrum1560[153]
1560[47]
Trichophyton schoenleinii1560[153]
1560[47]
Trichophyton soudanense1560[153]
1560[47]
Trichophyton tonsurans10,000[
10,000
153]
[47]
Trichosporon mucoides5000[153]
5000[47]
Ballota nigra
 subsp. 
foetida
 (Vis.) Hayek
Alternaria solani750[37]
750[49]
Botrytis cinerea600[37]
600[49]
Fusarium coeruleum350[37]
350[49]
Fusarium culmorum300[37]
300[49]
Fusarium oxysporum300[37]
300[49]
Fusarium solani350[37]
350[49]
Fusarium sporotrichioides350[37]
350[49]
Fusarium tabacinum350[37]
350[49]
Fusarium verticillioides300[37]
300[49]
Clinopodium dalmaticum
 (Benth.) Bräuchler and Heubl = 
Micromeria dalmatica
 Benth.
Aspergillus niger0.4[38]
0.4[50]
Aspergillus ochraceus0.4[38]
0.4[50]
Cladosporium cladosporioides0.4[38]
0.4[50]
Fusarium tricinctum0.4[38]
0.4[50]
Penicilium ochrochloron0.4[38]
0.4[50]
Phomopsis helianthi0.2[38]
0.2[50]
Trichoderma viride0.4[38]
0.4[50]
Clinopodium nepeta
 subsp. 
glandulosum
 (Req.) Govaerts = 
Calamintha glandulosa
 (Req.) Bentham = 
Calamintha officinalis
 Moench
Aspergillus niger1250[39]
1250[42]
Candida albicans2500[39]
2500[42]
Clinopodium nepeta
 (L.) Kuntze = 
Calamintha nepeta
 (L.) Savi
Aspergillus flavus1.25–10[41]
1.25–10[51]
Aspergillus fumigatus0.64–5[41]
0.64–5[51]
Aspergillus niger0.32–10[41]
0.32–10[51]
Candida albicans1.25–12,480[41,42]
1.25–12,480[51][52]
Candida guillermondii1.25–2.5[41]
1.25–2.5[51]
Candida krusei1.25–2.5[41]
1.25–2.5[51]
Candida parapsilosis1.25–2.5[41]
1.25–2.5[51]
Candida tropicalis1.25–2.5[41]
1.25–2.5[51]
Cryptococcus neoformans0.32–1.25[41]
0.32–1.25[51]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.64–2.5[41]
0.64–2.5[51]
Microsporum canis0.64–2.5[41]
0.64–2.5[51]
Microsporum gypseum1.25–5[41]
1.25–5[51]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.64–5[41]
0.64–5[51]
Trichophyton rubrum0.64–5[41]
0.64–5[51]
Clinopodium thymifolium
 (Scop.) Kuntze = 
Micromeria thymifolia
 (Scop.) Fritsch
Aspergillus niger2[38]
2[50]
Aspergillus ochraceus2[38]
2[50]
Cladosporium cladosporioides2[38]
2[50]
Fusarium tricinctum2[38]
2[50]
Penicillium ochrochloron2[
2
38]
[50]
Phomopsis helianthi0.4[38]
0.4[50]
Trichoderma viride2[38]
2[50]
Clinopodium umbrosum
 (M.Bieb.) Kuntze = 
Calamintha umbrosa
 Benth.
Alternaria solani3000[43]
3000[53]
Fusarium oxysporum2000[43]
2000[53]
Helminthosporium maydis1500[43]
1500[53]
Dracocephalum heterophyllum
 Benth.
Alternaria solani625[155]
625[54]
Candida albicans625–1000[44,155]
625–1000[55][54]
Epidermophyton floccosum2500[155]
2500[54]
Fusarium semitectum313[155]
313[54]
Hymenocrater longiflorus
 Benth.
Aspergillus niger480[45]
480[56]
Candida albicans240[45]
240[56]
Hyptis ovalifolia
 Benth.
Microsporum canis15.6–1000[46,156]
15.6–1000[57][58]
Microsporum gypseum7.8–1000[46,156]
7.8–1000[57][58]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes15.6–1000[46,156]
15.6–1000[57][58]
Trichophyton rubrum7.8–1000[46,156]
7.8–1000[57][58]
Hyssopus officinalis
 L.
Aspergillus niger52,200[47]
52,200[59]
Aspergillus ochraceus26,100[47]
26,100[59]
Aspergillus versicolor10,440[47]
10,440[59]
Candida albicans128–1000[44,48]
128–1000[55][60]
Candida glabrata512–1024[48]
512–1024[60]
Candida krusei128–256[48]
128–256[60]
Candida parapsilosis256–512[48]
256–512[60]
Candida tropicalis512–1024[48]
512–1024[60]
Cladosporium cladosporioides10,440[47]
10,440[59]
Cladosporium fulvum26,100[47]
26,100[59]
Penicillium funiculosum52,200[47]
52,200[59]
Penicillium ochrochloron26,100[47]
26,100[59]
Trichoderma viride10,440[47]
10,440[59]
Lavandula angustifolia
 Mill.
Candida albicans0.125–512[50,51,157]
0.125–512[61][62][63]
Malassezia furfur>4[49]
>4[64]
Trichophyton rubrum1–512[49,51]
1–512[64][62]
Trichosporon beigelii2[49]
2[64]
Lavandula multifida
 L.
Aspergillus flavus0.64[52]
0.64[65]
Aspergillus fumigatus0.32[52]
0.32[65]
Aspergillus niger0.32[52]
0.32[65]
Candida albicans0.32[
0.32
52]
[65]
Candida guilliermondii0.32[52]
0.32[65]
Candida krusei0.64[52]
0.64[65]
Candida parapsilosis0.32[52]
0.32[65]
Candida tropicalis0.32[52]
0.32[65]
Cryptococcus neoformans0.16[52]
0.16[65]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.16[52]
0.16[65]
Microsporum canis0.16[52]
0.16[65]
Microsporum gypseum0.16[52]
0.16[65]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.16[52]
0.16[65]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale0.16[52]
0.16[65]
Trichophyton rubrum0.16[52]
0.16[65]
Trichophyton verrucosum0.16[52]
0.16[65]
Lavandula pedunculata
 (Miller) Cav.
Aspergillus flavus5–10[53]
5–10[66]
Aspergillus fumigatus2.5–5[53]
2.5–5[66]
Aspergillus niger5[53]
5[66]
Candida albicans2.5[53]
2.5[66]
Candida guillermondii1.25[53]
1.25[66]
Candida krusei1.25–2.5[53]
1.25–2.5[66]
Candida parapsilosis2.5–5[53]
2.5–5[66]
Candida tropicalis1.25–2.5[53]
1.25–2.5[66]
Cryptococcus neoformans0.32–1.25[
0.32–1.25
53]
[66]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.32–0.64[53]
0.32–0.64[66]
Microsporum canis0.32–1.25[53]
0.32–1.25[66]
Microsporum gypseum0.64–2.5[53]
0.64–2.5[66]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.64–1.25[53]
0.64–1.25[66]
Trichophyton rubrum0.32–1.25[53]
0.32–1.25[66]
Lavandula stoechas
 L.
Aspergillus flavus1.25–10[54]
1.25–10[67]
Aspergillus fumigatus0.64–1.25[54]
0.64–1.25[67]
Aspergillus niger0.32–1.25[54]
0.32–1.25[67]
Candida albicans0.64–512[51,54]
0.64–512[62][67]
Candida guillermondii1.25[54]
1.25[67]
Candida krusei2.5[54]
2.5[67]
Candida parapsilosis2.5[54]
2.5[67]
Candida tropicalis2.5[54]
2.5[67]
Cryptococcus neoformans0.64[54]
0.64[67]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.16–0.32[54]
0.16–0.32[67]
Microsporum canis0.16–0.64[
0.16–0.64
54]
[67]
Microsporum gypseum0.32–0.64[54]
0.32–0.64[67]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.32–0.64[54]
0.32–0.64[67]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale0.16–0.64[54]
0.16–0.64[67]
Trichophyton rubrum0.16–256[51,54]
0.16–256[62][67]
Trichophyton verrucosum0.32[54]
0.32[67]
Lavandula viridis
 L’Her.
Aspergillus flavus5[55]
5[68]
Aspergillus fumigatus2.5[55]
2.5[68]
Aspergillus niger2.5[55]
2.5[68]
Candida albicans1.25–2.5[55]
1.25–2.5[68]
Candida guillermondii0.64–1.25[55]
0.64–1.25[68]
Candida krusei1.25–2.5[55]
1.25–2.5[68]
Candida parapsilosis1.25[55]
1.25[68]
Candida tropicalis1.25–2.5[55]
1.25–2.5[68]
Cryptococcus neoformans0.64[55]
0.64[68]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.32[55]
0.32[68]
Microsporum canis0.32[
0.32
55]
[68]
Microsporum gypseum0.64[55]
0.64[68]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.32–0.64[55]
0.32–0.64[68]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale0.32–0.64[55]
0.32–0.64[68]
Trichophyton rubrum0.32[55]
0.32[68]
Trichophyton verrucosum0.32[55]
0.32[68]
Lepechinia mutica
 (Benth.) Epling
Candida albicans>9000[56]
>9000[69]
Fusarium graminearum>9000[56]
>9000[69]
Microsporum canis2200–4500[56]
2200–4500[69]
Pyricularia oryzae>9000[56]
>9000[69]
Trichophyton rubrum2200–4500[56]
2200–4500[69]
Marrubium vulgare
 L.
Aspergillus niger>1180[58]
>1180[70]
Botrytis cinerea>1100[58]
>1100[70]
Fusarium solani>1190[58]
>1190[70]
Penicillium digitatum>1120[58]
>1120[70]
Melissa officinalis
 L.
Aspergillus niger313[158]
313[71]
Candida albicans30–313[59,158]
30–313[72][71]
Cryptococcus neoformans78[158]
78[71]
Epidermophyton floccosum30[
30
59]
[72]
Microsporum canis30[59]
30[72]
Penicillium verrucosum125[159]
125[73]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes15[59]
15[72]
Trichophyton rubrum15[59]
15[72]
Trichophyton tonsurans15[59]
15[72]
Mentha cervina
 L.
Aspergillus flavus2.5–5[60]
2.5–5[44]
Aspergillus fumigatus1.25–2.5[60]
1.25–2.5[44]
Aspergillus niger1.25–2.5[60]
1.25–2.5[44]
Candida albicans1.25–2.5[60]
1.25–2.5[44]
Candida guillermondii1.25–2.5[60]
1.25–2.5[44]
Candida krusei1.25–2.5[60]
1.25–2.5[44]
Candida parapsilosis1.25–2.5[60]
1.25–2.5[44]
Candida tropicalis1.25–2.5[60]
1.25–2.5[44]
Cryptococcus neoformans1.25[60]
1.25[44]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.64–1.25[60]
0.64–1.25[44]
Microsporum canis1.25[60]
1.25[44]
Microsporum gypseum1.25–2.5[60]
1.25–2.5[44]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes1.25–2.5[60]
1.25–2.5[44]
Trichophyton rubrum1.25[60]
1.25[44]
Mentha
 × 
piperita
 L.
Aspergillus flavus1450–5000[62,64]
1450–5000[74][75]
Aspergillus niger625–10,000[64,158]
625–10,000[75][71]
Aspergillus parasiticus2500[64]
2500[75]
Candida albicans225–1125[63,158,160]
225–1125[76][71][77]
Candida glabrata225[62]
225[74]
Candida tropicalis225–230[62]
225–230[74]
Cryptococcus neoformans313[158]
313[71]
Fusarium oxysporum125[161]
125[78]
Penicillium chrysogenum1250[64]
1250[75]
Penicillium minioluteum2050–2200[62]
2050–2200[74]
Penicillium oxalicum1300–2050[62]
1300–2050[74]
Penicillium verrucosum2500[90]
2500[79]
Mentha pulegium
 L.
Aspergillus niger0.25–1.25[65,162]
0.25–1.25[80][81]
Aspergillus flavus1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Aspergillus fumigatus1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Candida albicans0.94–3.75[65,66,162,163]
0.94–3.75[80][82][81][83]
Candida bracarensis3.75[163]
3.75[83]
Candida guillermondii1.25[
1.25
162]
[81]
Candida krusei0.94–1.25[162,163]
0.94–1.25[81][83]
Candida parapsilosis1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Candida tropicalis1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Cryptococcus neoformans0.64[162]
0.64[81]
Epidermophyton floccosum1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Microsporum canis1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Microsporum gypseum1.25–2.5[162]
1.25–2.5[81]
Saccharomyces cervisiae<0.3–0.94[66,163]
<0.3–0.94[82][83]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes1.25–2.5[162]
1.25–2.5[81]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale2.5[
2.5
162]
[81]
Trichophyton rubrum1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Trichophyton verrucosum1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Mentha requienii
 Bentham
Alternaria spp.>40[67]
 spp.>40[84]
Aspergillus fumigatus>60[67]
>60[84]
Candida albicans0.94–40[67,163]
0.94–40[84][83]
Candida bracarensis3.75[163]
3.75[83]
Candida krusei0.94[163]
0.94[83]
Fusarium spp.>40[67]
 spp.>40[84]
Penicillum spp.>60[67]
 spp.>60[84]
Rhodotorula spp.45[67]
 spp.45[84]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae0.94[163]
0.94[83]
Mentha spicata
 L.
Aspergillus flavus1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Aspergillus fumigatus0.64[
0.64
162]
[81]
Aspergillus niger0.64–313[158,162]
0.64–313[71][81]
Candida albicans1.25–625162]
1.25–625
[51,158,
[62][71][81]
Candida guillermondii1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Candida krusei1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Candida parapsilosis1.25[
1.25
162]
[81]
Candida tropicalis1.25[162]
1.25[81]
Cryptococcus neoformans0.32–313[158,162]
0.32–313[71][81]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.64[162]
0.64[81]
Fusarium graminearum2.5[164]
2.5[85]
Fusarium moniliforme2.5[164]
2.5[85]
Malassezia furfur>4[49]
>4[64]
Microsporum canis0.64–2[68,162]
0.64–2[86][81]
Microsporum gypseum0.64–3[162]
0.64–3[81]
Penicillium corylophilum0.625[165]
0.625[87]
Penicillium expansum2.5[
2.5
164]
[85]
Trichophyton erinacei3[68]
3[86]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.64–3[68,162]
0.64–3[86][81]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale0.64[162]
0.64[81]
Trichophyton rubrum0.25–512[49,51,162]
0.25–512[64][62][81]
Trichophyton terrestre
3[
68
]
Trichophyton verrucosum0.32[162]
0.32[81]
Trichosporon beigelii0.25[49]
0.25[64]
Mentha suaveolens
 Ehrh.
Candida albicans0.34–1250[69,71,166]
0.34–1250[88][89][90]
Candida glabrata0.69–2.77[69]
0.69–2.77[88]
Cryptococcus neoformans300[167]
300[91]
Microsporum canis1250[167]
1250[91]
Microsporum gypseum1250[167]
1250[91]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes600–1250[167]
600–1250[91]
Trichophyton rubrum5000[167]
5000[91]
Trichophyton violaceum600[167]
600[91]
Micromeria albanica
 (Griseb. ex K. Maly) Silic
Aspergillus niger0.2[38]
0.2[50]
Aspergillus ochraceus0.2[38]
0.2[50]
Cladosporium cladosporioides0.2[38]
0.2[50]
Fusarium tricinctum0.4[38]
0.4[50]
Penicilium ochrochloron0.2[38]
0.2[50]
Phomopsis helianthi0.2[38]
0.2[50]
Trichoderma viride0.4[38]
0.4[50]
Moluccella spinosa
 L.
Aspergillus niger50[72]
50[92]
Candida albicans100[72]
100[92]
Fusarium oxysporum100[72]
100[92]
Nepeta ciliaris
 Benth. = 
Nepeta leucophylla
 Benth.
Alternaria solani3000[43]
3000[53]
Candida albicans0.78[168]
0.78[93]
Fusarium oxysporum1000[43]
1000[53]
Trichophyton rubrum0.19[168]
0.19[93]
Helminthosporium maydis1500[43]
1500[53]
Nepeta clarkei
 Hook. f.
Alternaria solani3000[43]
3000[53]
Fusarium oxysporum2000[43]
2000[53]
Helminthosporium maydis2000[43]
2000[53]
Ocimum basilicum
 L.
Aspergillus flavus
10,000[
64
]
Aspergillus fumigatus>50[75]
>50[45]
Aspergillus niger
>50–10,000[
64
,
75
,
158
]
Aspergillus parasiticus
5000[
64
]
Candida albicans
30–625[
73
,
74
,
158
]
Candida guilliermondii
3.125–6.25[
76
]
Cryptococcus neoformans
313–1250[
158
,
169
]
Debaryomyces hansenii
6.25[
76
]
Epidermophyton floccosum
15[
74
]
Microsporum canis
1–15.2[
68
,
74
]
Microsporum gypseum
3[
68
]
Penicillium chrysogenum
10,000[
64
]
Penicillium italicum>50[75]
>50[45]
Rhizopus stolonifer>50[75]
>50[45]
Rhodotorula glutinis86[73]
86[94]
Trichophyton erinacei
2.5[
68
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
2.5–8.3[
68
,
74
]
Trichophyton terrestre
3[
68
]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae28[73]
28[94]
Schizosaccharomyces pombe86[73]
86[94]
Trichophyton rubrum
8.3[
74
]
Trichophyton tonsurans
8[
74
]
Yarrowia lypolytica
57[
73
]
Ocimum × africanum
 Lour. = 
Ocimum
 × 
citriodorum
Candida guilliermondii
3.125[
76
]
Debaryomyces hansenii
1.56[
76
]
Ocimum campechianum
 Mill. = 
Ocimum micranthum
 Willd.
Candida albicans69[73]
69[94]
Rhodotorula glutinis139[73]
139[94]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae69[73]
69[94]
Schizosaccharomyces pombe104[73]
104[94]
Yarrowia lypolytica69[73]
69[94]
Ocimum forskolei
 Benth.
Candida albicans
35.3–8600[
77
,
170
]
Ocimum gratissimum
 L.
Aspergillus fumigatus
>1000[
78
]
Candida albicans
350–1500[
78
,
171
]
Candida krusei
750[
171
]
Candida parapsilosis
380[
171
]
Candida tropicalis
1500[
171
]
Cryptococcus neoformans
250–300[
78
,
79
]
Fusarium oxysporum f.
 sp. 
cubense62.5[80]
62.5[95]
Fusarium oxysporum f.
 sp. 
lycopersici31.25[80]
31.25[95]
Fusarium oxysporum f.
 sp. 
tracheiphilum62.5[
62.5
80]
[95]
Fusarium solani62.5[80]
62.5[95]
Macrophomina phaseolina62.5–125[80]
62.5–125[95]
Malassezia pachydermatis
300[
78
]
Microsporum canis
200–500[
78
,
172
]
Microsporum gypseum
150–250[
78
,
172
]
Rhizoctonia solani31.25[80]
31.25[95]
Scopulariopsis brevicaulis
400[
78
]
Trichophyton interdigitale
250[
78
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
200–250[
78
,
172
]
Trichophyton rubrum
150–250[
78
,
172
]
Ocimum tenuiflorum
 L. = 
Ocimum sanctum
 L.
Aspergillus flavus
300[
83
]
Candida albicans
0.1–300[
81
,
82
]
Candida glabrata
0.15–300[
81
,
82
]
Candida krusei
0.35–450[
81
,
82
]
Candida parapsilosis
0.25–500[
81
,
82
]
Candida tropicalis
0.1–300[
81
,
82
]
Origanum compactum
 Benth.
Alternaria alternata300[84]
300[96]
Bipolaris oryzae300[84]
300[96]
Fusarium equiseti300[84]
300[96]
Fusarium graminearum300[84]
300[96]
Fusarium verticillioides300[84]
300[96]
Origanum majorana
 L.
Aspergillus flavus
450–650[
62
]
Aspergillus niger
625[
158
]
Botrytis cinerea
5000[
87
]
Candida albicans
625[
158
]
Cryptococcus neoformans
313[
158
]
Fusarium delphinoides
1800–14,400[
85
]
Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti
450–3600[
85
]
Fusarium napiforme
3600–14,400[
85
]
Fusarium oxysporum
900–3600[
85
]
Fusarium solani
900–3600[
85
]
Fusarium verticillioides
14,400[
85
]
Microsporum canis
0.5[
68
]
Microsporum gypseum
2[
68
]
Penicillium expansum
10,000[
87
]
Penicillium minioluteum
400–500[
62
]
Penicillium oxalicum
350–400[
62
]
Sporothrix brasiliensis
≤2250–9000[
86
]
Sporothrix schenckii
≤2250–9000[
86
]
Trichophyton erinacei
1[
68
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
1.5[
68
]
Trichophyton terrestre
2[
68
]
Origanum vulgare
 L.
Aspergillus flavus
0.64–2500[
64
,
89
,
91
]
Aspergillus fumigatus
0.32–0.64[
89
]
Aspergillus niger
0.32–623[
62
,
89
,
91
,
158
]
Aspergillus ochraceus
470[
91
]
Aspergillus parasiticus
2500[
64
]
Candida albicans
0.32–700[
74
,
88
,
89
,
91
,
158
]
Candida glabrata
350[
88
]
Candida guillermondii
0.64–1.25[
89
]
Candida krusei
0.64–700[
88
,
89
]
Candida parapsilosis
0.64–170[
88
,
89
]
Candida tropicalis
0.32–700[
88
,
89
]
Cladosporium
 sp.0.05–0.3[
173
]
Cryptococcus neoformans
0.16–78[
89
,
158
]
Epidermophyton floccosum
0.32–2[
74
,
89
]
Fusarium
 sp.0.1–0.5[
173
]
Malassezia furfur
1–780[
49
,
174
]
Microsporum canis
0.025–2[
68
,
74
,
89
]
Microsporum gypseum
0.025–1.25[
68
,
89
]
Penicillium
 sp.0.1–0.5[
173
]
Penicillium chrysogenum
625[
64
]
Penicillium corylophilum
0.625[
165
]
Penicillium funiculosum
610[
91
]
Penicillium ochrochloron
710[
91
]
Penicillium verrucosum
1.1719[
90
,
91
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
0.32–1.25[
74
,
89
]
Trichophyton rubrum
0.16–1.25[
49
,
74
,
89
]
Trichophyton tonsurans
1[
74
]
Trichosporon beigelii
0.25[
49
]
Trichophyton erinacei
0.5[
68
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
0.5[
68
]
Trichophyton terrestre
0.25[
68
]
Pogostemon cablin
 (Blanco) Benth.
Aspergillus flavus
>1500[
92
]
Aspergillus niger
156[
158
]
Aspergillus oryzae
>1500[
92
]
Candida albicans
32–625[
158
,
175
]
Candida krusei
64–257[
175
]
Candida tropicalis
32–257[
175
]
Cryptococcus neoformans
20[
158
]
Pogostemon heyneanus
 Benth.
Candida albicans
6000[
176
]
Candida glabrata
6000[
176
]
Candida tropicalis
10,000[
176
]
Premna microphylla
 Turcz.
Aspergillus niger
>500[
94
]
Candida albicans
>500[
94
]
Fusarium oxysporum
>500[
94
]
Rosmarinus officinalis
 L.
Aspergillus flavus
330[
91
]
Aspergillus ochraceus
590[
91
]
Aspergillus niger
380–10,000[
91
,
98
,
158
]
Botrytis cinerea
2500[
87
]
Candida albicans
30.2–1000[
51
,
91
,
96
,
98
,
158
]
Cryptococcus neoformans
313[
158
]
Epidermophyton floccosum
30[
96
]
Microsporum canis
2.5–30.2[
68
,
96
]
Microsporum gypseum
2.5[
68
]
Penicillium expansum
5000[
87
]
Penicillium ochrochloron
470[
91
]
Penicillium funiculosum
570[
91
]
Trichophyton erinacei
1.5[
68
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
5–15.3[
68
,
96
]
Trichophyton rubrum
15–256[
51
,
96
]
Trichophyton terrestre
5[
68
]
Trichophyton tonsurans
15.2[
96
]
Salvia fruticosa
 Miller
Candida albicans
512[
51
]
Fusarium oxysporum
 f. sp. 
dianthi>2000[99]
>2000[97]
Fusarium proliferatum>2000[99]
>2000[97]
Fusarium solani
 f. sp. 
cucurbitae>2000[99]
>2000[97]
Malassezia furfur>4[99]
>4[97]
Rhizoctonia solani>2000[99]
>2000[97]
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum>2000[99]
>2000[97]
Trichophyton rubrum
2–256[
49
,
99
]
Trichosporon beigelii
4[
49
]
Salvia mirzayanii
 Rech. f. and Esfand
Candida albicans0.5–2[100]
0.5–2[98]
Candida krusei1[100]
1[98]
Candida dubliniensis0.06–0.5[100]
0.06–0.5[98]
Candida glabrata0.06–1[100]
0.06–1[98]
Candida parapsilosis0.25–1[100]
0.25–1[98]
Candida tropicalis0.25–2[100]
0.25–2[98]
Trichosporon sp.1
 sp.
[100]
1[98]
Salvia officinalis
 L.
Aspergillus flavus
5–10[
101
]
Aspergillus fumigatus
2.5–5[
101
]
Aspergillus niger
5–1250[
101
,
158
]
Candida albicans
2.5–2780[
96
,
101
,
158
,
177
]
Candida guillermondii
1.25–2.5[
101
]
Candida krusei
2.5–5[
101
]
Candida parapsilosis
5[
101
]
Candida tropicalis
5[
101
]
Cryptococcus neoformans
0.64–625[
101
,
158
]
Epidermophyton floccosum
0.64–100[
96
,
101
]
Microsporum canis
1.25–100.2[
96
,
101
]
Microsporum gypseum
1.25–2.5[
101
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
1.25–60[
96
,
101
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale
1.25[
101
]
Trichophyton rubrum
0.64–60[
96
,
101
]
Trichophyton tonsurans
60[
96
]
Trichophyton verrucosum
1.25–2.5[
101
]
Salvia sclarea
 L.
Aspergillus niger
1250[
158
]
Candida albicans
1250[
158
]
Cryptococcus neoformans
313[
158
]
Fusarium delphinoides
1800–3600[
85
]
Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti
1800–3600[
85
]
Fusarium napiforme
1800–3600[
85
]
Fusarium oxysporum
1800–3600[
85
]
Fusarium solani
3600–7200[
85
]
Fusarium verticillioides
1800[
85
]
Satureja hortensis
 L.
Alternaria alternata
62.5[
103
]
Aspergillus flavus
31.25–500[
103
,
104
,
117
]
Aspergillus niger471[117]
471[99]
Aspergillus ochraceus423[117]
423[99]
Aspergillus parasiticus373[117]
373[99]
Aspergillus terreus389[117]
389[99]
Aspergillus variecolor125[103]
125[100]
Candida albicans
200–400[
103
,
178
]
Fusarium culmorum125[103]
125[100]
Fusarium oxysporum250[103]
250[100]
Microsporum canis62.5[103]
62.5[100]
Moniliania fructicola31.25[103]
31.25[100]
Penicillium spp.125[103]
 spp.125[100]
Rhizoctonia solani125[103]
125[100]
Rhizopus spp.250[103]
 spp.250[100]
Sclerotinia minor250[103]
250[100]
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum125[103]
125[100]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes62.5[103]
62.5[100]
Trichophyton rubrum31.25[103]
31.25[100]
Satureja montana
 L.
Microsporum canis
0.5[
68
]
Microsporum gypseum
2[
68
]
Trichophyton erinacei
2[
68
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
2[
68
]
Trichophyton terrestre
3[
68
]
Satureja thymbra
 L.
Aspergillus flavus
25[
105
]
Aspergillus fumigatus
1.25–25[
105
,
179
]
Aspergillus niger
2.5–25[
105
,
179
]
Aspergillus ochraceus
2.5–25[
105
,
179
]
Aspergillus versicolor
1.25[
179
]
Candida albicans
25–128[
51
,
105
]
Penicillium funiculosum
2.5–25[
105
,
179
]
Penicillium ochrochloron
1–1.25[
105
,
179
]
Trichoderma viride
1.25–25[
105
,
179
]
Trichophyton rubrum
128[
51
]
Stachys cretica
 L.
Candida albicans
625[
106
]
Stachys officinalis
 (L.) Trevis
Aspergillus niger
2500[
107
]
Candida albicans
5000[
107
]
Stachys pubescens
 Ten.
Alternaria alternata1[108]
1[101]
Aspergillus flavus0–5[108]
0–5[101]
Fusarium oxysporum1[108]
1[101]
Teucrium sauvagei
 Le Houerou
Aspergillus fumigatus>1000[109]
>1000[102]
Candida albicans>1000[109]
>1000[102]
Cryptococcus neoformans>1000[109]
>1000[102]
Epidermophyton floccosum850[109]
850[102]
Microsporum canis800[109]
800[102]
Microsporum gypseum900[109]
900[102]
Scopulariopsis brevicaulis>1000[109]
>1000[102]
Scytalidium dimidiatum>1000[
>1000
109]
[102]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
 var. 
interdigitale950[109]
950[102]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
 var. 
mentagrophytes900[109]
900[102]
Trichophyton rubrum800[109]
800[102]
Trichophyton soudanense800[109]
800[102]
Teucrium yemense
 Deflers.
Aspergillus niger313[77]
313[103]
Botrytis cinerea313[77]
313[103]
Candida albicans1250[77]
1250[103]
Thymbra capitata
 (L.) Cav. = 
Thymus capitatus
 (L.) Hoffmanns. and Link = 
Coridothymus capitatus
 (L.) Rchb.f. Solms
Aspergillus flavus0.32[111]
0.32[104]
Aspergillus fumigatus0.16–0.32[111]
0.16–0.32[104]
Aspergillus niger0.1–0.16[111,180]
0.1–0.16[104][105]
Aspergillus oryzae0.2[180]
0.2[105]
Candida albicans0.16–128[51,110,111,112]
0.16–128[62][106][104][107]
Candida glabrata0.32[111,112]
0.32[104][107]
Candida guilliermondii0.16–0.32[111,112]
0.16–0.32[104][107]
Candida krusei0.32[111]
0.32[104]
Candida parapsilosis0.32[111,112]
0.32[104][107]
Candida tropicalis0.32[111,
0.32
112]
[104][107]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.08[
0.08
111]
[104]
Fusarium solani0.2[180]
0.2[105]
Microsporum canis0.08[111]
0.08[104]
Microsporum gypseum0.08[111]
0.08[104]
Penicillium digitatum
0.5[
180
]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.08[111]
0.08[104]
Trichophyton rubrum0.16–64[51,111]
0.16–64[62][104]
Thymbra spicata
 L.
Aspergillus fumigatus0.3[
0.3
179]
[108]
Aspergillus niger0.6[179]
0.6[108]
Aspergillus versicolor0.3[179]
0.3[108]
Aspergillus ochraceus0.6[179]
0.6[108]
Candida albicans1.12–3750[51,113,114]
1.12–3750[62][109][110]
Candida krusei1.12[114]
1.12[110]
Candida parapsilosis0.6–1.12[114]
0.6–1.12[110]
Penicillium funiculosum0.3[179]
0.3[108]
Penicillium ochrochloron0.3[179]
0.3[108]
Trichoderma viride0.3[179]
0.3[108]
Trichophyton rubrum64[
64
51]
[62]
Thymus bovei
 Benth.
Candida albicans250[
250
115]
[111]
Thymus daenensis
 Celak.
Alternaria alternata>8[
>8
108]
[101]
Aspergillus flavus1[108]
1[101]
Fusarium oxysporum4[108]
4[101]
Thymus kotschyanus
 Boiss. and Hohen.
Alternaria alternata1[108]
1[101]
Aspergillus flavus0.5[108]
0.5[101]
Fusarium oxysporum0–5[108]
0–5[101]
Thymus mastichina
 (L.) L.
Candida albicans1.25–2.5[116]
1.25–2.5[112]
Candida glabrata1.25–1.5[116]
1.25–1.5[112]
Candida guilliermondii1.25[116]
1.25[112]
Candida krusei1.25–2.5[116]
1.25–2.5[112]
Candida parapsilosis2.5–5[116]
2.5–5[112]
Candida tropicalis2.5–10[116]
2.5–10[112]
Thymus migricus
 Klokov et Des.-Shost.
Aspergillus flavus452[117]
452[99]
Aspergillus niger460[117]
460[99]
Aspergillus ochraceus430[117]
430[99]
Aspergillus parasiticus581[117]
581[99]
Aspergillus terreus447[117]
447[99]
Thymus pulegioides
 L.
Aspergillus flavus0.32[119]
0.32[113]
Aspergillus fumigatus0.16[119]
0.16[113]
Aspergillus niger0.32[119]
0.32[113]
Candida albicans0.32–0.64[119]
0.32–0.64[113]
Candida glabrata0.32–0.64[119]
0.32–0.64[113]
Candida guilliermondii0.32[119]
0.32[113]
Candida krusei0.32–0.64[119]
0.32–0.64[113]
Candida parapsilosis0.64[
0.64
119]
[113]
Candida tropicalis0.32–0.64[119]
0.32–0.64[113]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.16[119]
0.16[113]
Microsporum canis0.16[119]
0.16[113]
Microsporum gypseum0.16[119]
0.16[113]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.16[119]
0.16[113]
Trichophyton rubrum0.32[119]
0.32[113]
Thymus schimperi
 Ronninger
Aspergillus minutus0.512–2[120]
0.512–2[114]
Aspergillus niger0.16[181]
0.16[115]
Aspergillus tubingensis1–4[120]
1–4[114]
Beauveria bassiana0.128–1[120]
0.128–1[114]
Candida albicans0.16[181]
0.16[115]
Microsporum spp.0.08[181]
 spp.0.08[115]
Microsporum gypseum0.128–1[120]
0.128–1[114]
Penicillium chrysogenum0.512–2[120]
0.512–2[114]
Rhodotorula spp.0.08
 spp.
[181]
0.08[115]
Tricophyton spp.0.08–0.31[181]
 spp.0.08–0.31[115]
Verticillium sp.0.512–2[120]
 sp.0.512–2[114]
Thymus serpyllum
 L.
Aspergillus carbonarius1.25[
1.25
182]
[116]
Aspergillus ochraceus0.625[182]
0.625[116]
Aspergillus niger2.5[182]
2.5[116]
Microsporum canis0.025[68]
0.025[86]
Microsporum gypseum0.25[68]
0.25[86]
Trichophyton erinacei0.1[68]
0.1[86]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.2[68]
0.2[86]
Trichophyton terrestre0.1[68]
0.1[86]
Thymus striatus
 Vahl.
Alternaria alternata1[121]
1[117]
Aspergillus flavus1.5[121]
1.5[117]
Aspergillus niger1[121]
1[117]
Aspergillus ochraceus1[121]
1[117]
Aspergillus terreus1[121]
1[117]
Aspergillus versicolor1[121]
1[117]
Cladosporium cladosporioides0.5[121]
0.5[117]
Epidermophyton floccosum1[121]
1[117]
Microsporum canis1.5[121]
1.5[117]
Penicillium funiculosum2[121]
2[117]
Penicillium ochrochloron2[121]
2[117]
Phomopsis helianthi0.5[121]
0.5[117]
Trichoderma viride2[121]
2[117]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes1[
1
121]
[117]
Thymus vulgaris
 L.
Absidia spp.7 ± 4
 spp.
[122]
7 ± 4[118]
Alternaria spp.9.4 ± 4.5[122]
 spp.9.4 ± 4.5[118]
Alternaria alternata4.7–500[122,
4.7–500
183]
[118][119]
Aspergillus spp.3.2
 spp.
[122]
3.2[118]
Aspergillus flavus
9.35–1500[
64
,
104
,
122
,
125
,
184
]
Aspergillus fumigatus
144–1000[
124
,
184
]
Aspergillus niger
9.35–1250[
64
,
122
,
158
,
184
]
Aspergillus ochraceus2.5–750[164,184]
2.5–750[85][120]
Aspergillus parasiticus1250[64]
1250[75]
Aspergillus sulphureus10.88 ± 3.1[122]
10.88 ± 3.1[118]
Aspergillus versicolor9.6 ± 9.25[122]
9.6 ± 9.25[118]
Botrytis cinerea
312[
87
]
Candida albicans0.16–313[73,74,116,158]
0.16–313[94][121][112][71]
Candida glabrata0.16–0.32[
0.16–0.32
116]
[112]
Candida krusei0.08–0.16[116]
0.08–0.16[112]
Candida guillermondii0.16[116]
0.16[112]
Candida parapsilosis0.16–0.32[116]
0.16–0.32[112]
Candida tropicalis0.16–0.32[116]
0.16–0.32[112]
Chaetomium globosum1.6[122]
1.6[118]
Cladosporium spp.12.8[122]
 spp.12.8[118]
Cladosporium sphaerospermum19.6[122]
19.6[118]
Cryptococcus neoformans78[158]
78[71]
Epidermophyton floccosum4[74]
4[121]
Fusarium spp.62.5[185]
 spp.62.5[122]
Fusarium delphinoides900–1800[85]
900–1800[123]
Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti450–3600[85]
450–3600[123]
Fusarium napiforme900[85]
900[123]
Fusarium oxysporum5–900[85,126]
5–900[123][124]
Fusarium solani1800–3600[85]
1800–3600[123]
Fusarium verticillioides900[85]
900[123]
Malassezia furfur920[174]
920[125]
Microsporum canis2.2[74]
2.2[121]
Mortierella spp.250[185]
 spp.250[122]
Mucor spp.50.2 ± 8.4[122]
 spp.50.2 ± 8.4[118]
Penicilium spp.18.95–500[122,185]
 spp.18.95–500[118][122]
Penicilium brevicompactum19.6[122]
19.6[118]
Penicillium chrysogenum312.5–1750[64,184]
312.5–1750[75][120]
Penicilium chrysogenum19.6[122]
19.6[118]
Penicillium citrinum1250[184]
1250[120]
Penicillium expansum625[87]
625[126]
Penicillium griseofulvum19.6[122]
19.6[118]
Rhizopus spp.12.6[122]
 spp.12.6[118]
Rhodotorula glutinis72[
72
73]
[94]
Rhizopus oryzae256–512[123]
256–512[127]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae72[73]
72[94]
Schizosaccharomyces pombe36[73]
36[94]
Stachybotrys chartarum6.2[122]
6.2[118]
Trichoderma spp.16.8[122]
 spp.16.8[118]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes2.2[74]
2.2[121]
Trichophyton rubrum2–72[74,124]
2–72[121][128]
Trichophyton tonsurans2.2[74]
2.2[121]
Ulocladium spp.5.45 ± 1.5
 spp.
[122]
5.45 ± 1.5[118]
Yarrowia lypolytica36[73]
36[94]
Thymus zygis
 L.
Candida albicans0.16–0.32
0.16–0.32
[116]
[112]
Candida glabrata0.32[116]
0.32[112]
Candida krusei0.16–0.32[116]
0.16–0.32[112]
Candida guillermondii0.16[116]
0.16[112]
Candida parapsilosis0.32[116]
0.32[112]
Candida tropicalis0.16–0.32[116]
0.16–0.32[112]
Penicillium corylophilum0.3125–0.625[165]
0.3125–0.625[87]
Vitex agnus-castus
 L.
Candida albicans0.53–512[51,129]
0.53–512[62][129]
Candida dubliniensis
0.27[129]
Candida famata
2.13[129]
Candida glabrata
0.27[129]
Candida krusei
0.27[129]
Candida lusitaniae
2.13[129]
Candida parapsilosis
1.06[129]
Candida tropicalis
0.13[129]
Epidermophyton floccosum0.64–2.5[128]
0.64–2.5[130]
Microsporum canis0.64–5[128]
0.64–5[130]
Microsporum gypseum1.25–10[128]
1.25–10[130]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes1.25–10[128]
1.25–10[130]
Trichophyton rubrum0.64–512[51,128]
0.64–512[62][130]
Zataria multiflora
 Boiss.
Aspergillus flavus358[117]
358[99]
Aspergillus niger358[117]
358[99]
Aspergillus ochraceus341[
341
117]
[99]
Aspergillus parasiticus367[117]
367[99]
Aspergillus terreus447[117]
447[99]
Microsporum canis0.125–0.25[130]
0.125–0.25[131]
Microsporum gypseum0.03–0.06[130]
0.03–0.06[131]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes0.03[130]
0.03[131]
Trichophyton rubrum0.03–0.06[130]
0.03–0.06[131]
Trichophyton schoenleinii0.125–0.6[130]
0.125–0.6[131]
Ziziphora clinopodioides
 Lam.
Aspergillus flavus48.82[184,186]
48.82[120][132]
Aspergillus fumigatus1750[184]
1750[120]
Aspergillus niger3000[184]
3000[120]
Aspergillus ochraceus1500[184]
1500[120]
Aspergillus parasiticus48.82[186]
48.82[132]
Penicillium chrysogenum3000[184]
3000[120]
Penicillium citrinum1750[184]
1750[120]
Ziziphora tenuior
 L.
Aspergillus flavus
1.25[133]
Aspergillus fumigatus
0.64[133]
Aspergillus niger
0.64[133]
Candida albicans
1.25[133]
Candida guillermondii
1.25[133]
Candida krusei
1.25[133]
Candida parapsilosis
1.25[133]
Candida tropicalis
1.25[133]
Cryptococcus neoformans
0.16[133]
Epidermophyton floccosum
0.64[133]
Microsporum canis
0.64–1.25[133]
Microsporum gypseum
1.25[133]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
1.25[133]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
 var. 
interdigitale
1.254[133]
Trichophyton rubrum
0.64[133]
Trichophyton verrucosum
0.64[133]
The mode of action of essential oils is multidirectional. Essential oils lead to disruption of the cell wall and cell membrane through a permeabilization process. The lipophilic compounds of essential oils can pass through the cell wall and damage polysaccharides, fatty acids, and phospholipids, eventually making them permeable [146,147][41][134]. Change of the permeability for H+ and K+  cations affects cellular pH and damage of cellular organelles [148,149][135][136]. Additionally, essential oils inhibit the synthesis of fungal DNA, RNA, proteins, and polysaccharides [150][137]. Essential oils can also disintegrate mitochondrial membrane [151,152][138][139]. It has also been shown that essential oil from Thymus vulgaris inhibits the production of aflatoxins by Aspergillus flavus  and leads to the reduction of ergosterol production [123][127].

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