Pulses as Ingredients for Processed Meats: History
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Contributor:
Darshika Pathiraje
,
Janelle Carlin
,
Tanya Der
,
Janitha P. D. Wanasundara
,
Phyllis J. Shand

Pulses are in the forefront as protein-rich sources to aid in providing sufficient daily protein intake and may be used as binders to reduce meat protein in meat product formulations. Use of pulse-derived ingredients in meat processing can lower formulation costs, improve nutritional value and enhance meat product quality. Pulses are seen as clean-label multi-functional ingredients that bring benefits to meat products beyond protein content. Their broader use as ingredients in meat products may be enhanced by various processes such as thermal pre-treatment.

  • meat products
  • pulses
  • multi-functional ingredients
  • infrared treatment

1. Composition and Nutritional Value

Pulses are dry edible legume seeds consumed in many regions of the world as part of a staple diet and have a long history dating back approximately 11,000 years. In general, pulses are rich in protein, slowly digestible carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and a variety of micronutrients such as selenium, iron, vitamins E and A, folate, niacin, and thiamine [1]. Table 1 elaborates on the chemical composition of three commonly grown pulses: dry peas, lentils and chickpeas. The mature pulse seed consists of the seed coat, the cotyledons, and the embryo. The seed coat, also known as the hull, comprises between 7 and 15% of the total seed mass. About 85% of the mass of a seed is made up of the cotyledon, while the embryo is 1 to 4%. The seed coat of pulses consists mostly of (60–90%) non-starch polysaccharides [2]. The seed cotyledons, where the majority of the nutrients are stored, contain carbohydrates (starch and non-starch polysaccharides) and proteins together with cell wall polysaccharides and micronutrients [3][4].
Table 1. Nutritional composition of dry peas, lentils, and chickpeas (value per 100 g of whole seed flour).
Nutrient Dry Peas Lentils Chickpeas
Carbohydrates (g) 61.6 63.4 63
Dietary fiber (g) 22.2 10.7 12.2
Total sugars (g) 3.14 2.03 10.7
Protein (g) 23.1 24.6 20.5
Fat (g) 3.89 1.06 6.04
Calcium (mg) 46 35 57
Iron (mg) 4.73 6.51 4.31
Potassium (mg) 852 677 718
Zinc (mg) 3.49 3.27 2.76
Vitamin A (µg) 7 2 3
Vitamin C (mg) 1.8 4.5 4
Thiamin (mg) 0.719 0.87 0.47
Riboflavin (mg) 0.244 0.21 0.21
Niacin (mg) 3.61 2.60 1.54
Vitamin B-6 (mg) 0.14 0.54 0.53
Folate (µg) 15 479 577
Source: USDA [5].
From a nutritional standpoint, pulses are rich in macro- and micronutrients. Thus, pulses in various forms have been utilized in the reformulation of meat products as binders or to enhance their nutritional and healthy features or sensory qualities. The protein, starch, and fiber contents of pulses make them effective binders as these biopolymers form complex gel networks with meat proteins [6]. Among the micronutrients of pulses, a number of naturally occurring bioactive chemicals such as enzyme inhibitors, lectins, oligosaccharides, oxalates, phytic acid, and phenolic compounds have been reported. On one hand, scientific studies show that these compounds are linked to a lower risk of several degenerative diseases due to their hypocholesterolemic, anti-cancer, anti-atherosclerotic, and anti-oxidative properties. Some of these compounds may act as prooxidants and participate in processes that contribute to unpleasant flavors by limiting their applications in food products [7]. A number of organizations, including the World Cancer Research Fund International (WCRFI), the American Institute of Cancer Research (AIDR), and Health Canada (HC), recommend the inclusion of pulses in the diet to lower cancer risk [8][9]. When considering the blending of pulses into meat products, the abovementioned characteristics become great strengths as well as challenges. Application of some processing technologies and pre-treatments is helpful to overcome or minimize the impact of the negative aspects of pulses.

2. Pulse Processing

Pulses undergo several processes to make them suitable as ingredients in food formulations. A summary of pulse processing into various products is shown in Figure 1. A detailed understanding of the processing of a specific pulse ingredient would be beneficial since every stage may impact the chemical composition, nutritive value, and functionality of the derived pulse product. Tannins, for example, are mostly located in the seed coat of pulses; therefore, the physical removal of the seed coat by dehulling lowers about 68 and 99% of tannin content in a seed [10]. In addition, depending on the method used for protein isolation, the types of protein and their amounts in the recovered fractions change; therefore, the functional properties differ as demonstrated for green peas and chickpeas by Chang et al. [11]. The findings of their study showed that the purity of the legumin and vicilin proteins of these fractions was greater than 80% and 90%, respectively. Vicilin proteins have stronger solubility and emulsification characteristics but lower denaturation temperature than legumin proteins owing to their smaller molecular weight, less rigid conformational structure, and lower disulfide bond content than legumin. Accordingly, it is evident that the processing can yield ingredients with different chemical compositions and techno-functional properties.
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Figure 1. Outline of processing steps of pulses involved in the production of different pulse-derived ingredients (as defined by the International Pulse Ingredient Consortium [12]). Reproduced with permission from Pathiraje et al. (2023) https://doi.org/10.3390/
foods12081722 [# XX and add to reference list]

3. Pulses and Pulse-Derived Ingredients for Use in Processed Meat Products

The most explicit use of pulses in meat products is as an extender or binder/filler. Extenders and binders serve many purposes in meat products, mostly through their effects on formulation costs, improving nutritional value and benefitting processing parameters such as the viscosity and adhesiveness of meat batters and enhancing product quality by retaining more liquid (oil and water), texture, flavor, mouthfeel, and appearance [13][14][15][16]. Pulse ingredients are distributed into the meat matrix by mixing them directly into the meat during chopping and emulsification. Some recent research shows that they may also be made into pre-emulsions that utilize a high-protein pulse ingredient to stabilize a lipid emulsion before incorporation into a meat product [17]. Surface application in marinades followed by massaging may also be practiced [18]. However, the application of pulse ingredients in meat products might have both benefits and limitations depending on their constituent compounds and processing conditions under which they are used. Table 2 summarizes the potential benefits and limitations of incorporating pulses in meat products.
Table 2. Potential advantages and disadvantages of adding pulses to meat products [ref # for Pathiraje et al. (2023) https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12081722].
Property or Function of Pulses Potential Effect on Meat Products
Advantages
Water and oil retention properties		 Improved juiciness, moist mouthfeel, flavor, and product yield, provide firmer texture
Contribution of protein Increase protein content
Contribution of fiber Increase dietary fiber content
Contribution of antioxidant compounds (ex: phenolic compounds, antioxidative enzymes etc.) Increase oxidative stability of lipids, protein, and pigments, improve color stability, increase bioactivity
Disadvantages  
Contribution of pro-oxidative compound (ex: oxidative enzymes) Increase lipid, protein, and pigment oxidation, reduce color acceptability, development of off-flavor
Contribution of color Reduce redness of fresh meat products, increase dark color of cooked meat products
Contribution of antinutritive factors Affects availability and digestibility of proteins and minerals
Contribution of fiber Products become softer and less juicy

3.1. Pulse Flours

The water and oil retention properties of the starch, protein, and fiber constituents of pulse flours lend to their use as a binder in food systems. In products such as patties and burgers, pulse flours trap water, fat, and other substances forming complex gel networks with meat proteins when heated (42). It has been shown that pulse flours enable high liquid retention in meat systems, thereby lowering cooking losses, improving the texture, and increasing the product yield. One particular advantage that pulses have as an ingredient in meat products is that their native starches will gelatinize at the regular meat thermal processing temperatures (generally ranging between 65 °C and 100 °C [17][18][19]), thus contributing greatly to the water-holding capacity. Argel et al. [20] reported that the addition of 0.8 to 1.5% flours of chickpeas, lentils, green peas, and white kidney beans  (and 10 to 30% water) to pork patties increased the cooking yield to 87 to 91% (control value of 76%) where the type of pulse presented as a considerable factor for the cooking yield. The cooking yield of the reformulated patties improved with increasing the substitution levels, and at all substitution levels, these patties produced higher cooking yields than the commercial control burger. Pork patties made with bean, lentil, and green pea flour exhibited greater cooking yield than those made with chickpea flour at the lowest level of replacement (0.8%). It was explained that the differences observed among the various pulses might be due to the compositional differences of the pulse flours. Among these pulses, chickpea flour had the lowest contents of protein and fiber but the highest fat content, which could contribute to a lower water-binding ability than other flours.

3.2. Pulse Proteins

Lean (skeletal muscle) and fat components are often used in meat product formulations, where protein and fat from skeletal muscles make up the majority of the composition next to water. The lean meat component of the formulation is responsible for fat emulsification, product structure, water binding, and end product color [6]. Plant proteins, such as those from pulses, can substitute for the lean meat component in these products due to their functional relevance. They provide fat emulsification, gelation, structure formation, and textural integrity of the meat products [6]. Legumin and vicilin are globulin proteins of pulses that are responsible for heat-induced gelation and lead to the formation of a three-dimensional structure [21]. The heat-induced gel formation ability is maximized when the ratio of vicilin to legumin is increased [22], but it may change with the type of pulse. Proteins found in pulses also have the capacity to interact, bind, and retain water and oil [23][24] in emulsions, attributed to protein–water (ion–dipole, dipole–dipole, and hydrostatic bindings) and protein–lipid (hydrophobic) interactions. As the protein purity increases, the number of these interactions increases, resulting in more fat and water retention in emulsions [25].

3.3. Pulse Fibers

Studies have shown that adding pea fiber to meat products increases the cook yield and water retention and reduces shrinkage [26][27]. These effects are the result of an improved capacity for the myofibrillar gel matrix to entrap water due to fiber’s absorptive ability [27][28]. Heat-induced myofibrillar gel formation provides a continuous three-dimensional gel matrix that physically entraps the added fiber [29]. Xu [30] evaluated the impact of fiber fractions from yellow peas and red lentils on low-fat pork bologna and found that they may also be used to increase the total dietary fiber content without compromising their consumer acceptability. However, some studies found that fiber addition resulted in products becoming softer and less juicy on consumption [26].

4. Bioactive Compounds of Interest in Pulses and Pulse-Derived Ingredients

Bioactive chemicals are often non-nutritive components of food that are present in smaller quantities than macronutrients. Pulses too contain an abundance of bioactive compounds that are not considered nutrients. Phenolic compounds, enzymes, oligosaccharides, and resistant starch are among the bioactive components commonly found in pulses, which makes them suitable for application in a wide range of food products.

4.1. Non-Enzymatic Bioactives

In a recent comprehensive review, Matallana-González et al. [31] pointed out that pulses, as a good source of many different types of antioxidant compounds, may have important health benefits such as preventing cardiovascular diseases and cancer and having neuroprotective capabilities. Dietary antioxidants are a complex mixture of hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds that are abundant in foods of plant origin. Pulses contain both water-soluble (organic acids and phenolic compounds) and lipid-soluble antioxidants (tocopherols and carotenoids), as well as antioxidative minerals such as zinc and selenium.
Among the antioxidant compounds found in pulses, phenolic compounds have a significant role in delaying the oxidative degradation of meat products. Due to their redox characteristics, phenolic compounds are capable of functioning as hydrogen donors, reducing agents, and singlet oxygen quenchers [32], thereby controlling lipid, color, and flavor oxidation. Flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acids make up the majority of the polyphenolic compounds found in pulses. Both the cotyledon and the seed coat have phenolic compounds which are found in higher concentrations in the latter [33]. The color of the seed coat is linked to the types of phenolic compounds of pulse seeds, whereby dark-colored seed coats have higher phenolic contents than light-colored pulses [34][35]. With respect to lentils, the green seed coats have higher levels of water-soluble phenolics compared with grey and brown [36].
Although bioactive compounds act in beneficial roles, these compounds in raw pulses can also have negative nutritive properties at certain concentration levels [37][38][39]. They have very different chemical properties and biological effects, and their concentrations can differ significantly from pulse to pulse and variety to variety, further influenced by the processing method applied [40][41]. However, it follows that the use of processing methods such as soaking and germination [42][43][44] or thermal processing [42][45][46] can reduce the level of antinutrients in pulses. Furthermore, since pulse ingredient addition levels in meat products are relatively low, the negative impact of these bioactive compounds on human nutrition from the consumption of pulse-added meat products may be minor.

4.2. Endogenous Enzymes

Pulses, as with all seeds, contain enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase, which provide protection against the oxidation reactions that progress in meat [33]. These enzymes are relatively heat-stable [33], making them useful in heat-treated food applications. On the other hand, lipoxygenase and peroxidase are oxidative enzymes present in pulses. Lipoxygenase catalyzes peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids that contain one molecular oxygen with cis, cis-1,4-pentadiene structure such as in arachidonic (C20:4 n-6), linoleic (C18:2 n-6), and linolenic (C18:3 n-3) acids [47][48]. Even though the precise role of oxidative enzymes in pulses is not known, it may include peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in membranes and storage lipids, synthesis of growth regulators in response to pathogens, and nitrogen storage [49]. The activity of oxidative enzymes is necessary for the plant’s defense against pathogens, but the same activity may be negative in the food environment. Lipoxygenase mediates the conversion of polyunsaturated fatty acids to aldehydes and alcohols, which are the primary contributors to off-flavor in pulse-based products [50][51].

5. Sensory Properties of Pulses to Consider When Formulating Meat Products

Consumers often choose foods based on their sensory appeal including appearance, taste, flavor, and texture. Several studies have shown that pulses may be less acceptable to some because of their natural sensorial properties, especially to those consumers who are not familiar with pulses. In a recent review, Chigwedere and colleagues [52] identified that beany and bitter were the most common olfactory and basic sensations, while astringent and spicy were the most common trigeminal sensations reported for pulses and pulse-derived ingredients. The flavor profile of pulses that may lower acceptability is associated with volatile off-flavor compounds related to the presence of aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, acids, pyrazines, and sulfur compounds [53]. These compounds are either inherent to pulses or produced during harvesting, processing, and storage [54][55]. The off-taste in pulses has also been associated with the presence of saponins, phenolic compounds, and alkaloids. However, very limited investigations have been conducted into the identification of off-flavor compounds in relation to their impact to the overall perception of pulses and their products. Flavor profiles of meat products depend on the inherent meat flavor in combination with that of salt, curing agents, spices, spice extractives, and other added ingredients. It will be easier to formulate with pulses or pulse-derived ingredients that have a more neutral flavor, but of course, any negative effects on palatability will depend on addition level, amount of added water, lipid levels and meat species, etc. Very few studies have looked at the scientific details of off-flavor, taste and acceptability in consumer-ready products derived from or incorporating pulses.
Color is another attribute that may be affected when incorporating pulse flours and other pulse-derived ingredients into meat products. The use of some pulse flours in meat products has had a considerable impact on their lightness, redness, and yellowness scores. Dzudie et al. [56] observed that adding chickpea flour (7.5–10%) to beef sausages increased yellowness. According to Pietrasik and Janz [57], the color of ultra-low-fat pork bologna was unaffected by wheat or barley flours; however, lightness (a* value) was higher when produced with either 4% pea starch or wheat flour [58]. These findings show that binders have varying effects on the color of meat products, the degree of which depends on the binder and the amount used, as well as the meat product formulation. For example, some specialized textured pulse protein products have colorants added to better mimic the color of meat. Likely, other ingredients or changes in formulations may minimize any negative impacts on the color of resulting products. Consumer evaluation (n =180) of the color acceptability of sausages with 4 to 8% added whole lentil flour showed that the color of sausages did not impact the overall acceptability [59].

6. Thermal Treatments to Improve Pulse Flour Characteristics

As shown in Table 2, certain native characteristics and properties of pulses are not always beneficial when using them as ingredients in various food formulations. Untreated pulse ingredients contain minor amounts of several compounds and enzymes, some with undesirable nutritional effects, anti- or pro-oxidant activities, positive or negative aesthetic, taste, and techno-functional properties. In order to maximize the benefits of pulses in meat products, the negative effects of these components must be lowered, mostly by pre-treatment of the seed source or the ingredient. Various types of treatments have been employed to transform pulses into better ingredients. A few examples are boiling, roasting, germination, and fermentation, which are common across pulse-heavy food cultures and culinary traditions. At industrial-level food processing, heat treatments studied for pulses can be categorized as dry (microwave heating, extrusion cooking, etc.) or wet (boiling, canning, infrared or IR heating, etc.) depending on whether water or steam is present. One of the benefits of heat-treated pulses is the inactivation of heat-labile compounds such as trypsin inhibitors and hemagglutinins that pose undesirable nutritive effects, thereby increasing the nutritional value and quality [60]. Furthermore, heat treatment of pulses is well recognized to minimize off-flavors and hence improve the sensory quality of pulse-based products [54]. Therefore, products formulated with heat-treated pulses may have higher consumer acceptance than untreated pulses. On the other hand, heat treatment, particularly wet heating, can also cause losses of vitamins, minerals, and other water-soluble nutrients [61]. Some phenolic compounds can also be affected by heat treatment, particularly, dry heat at high temperatures generating new compounds such as Maillard browning products [62].
In pulse–meat combined product systems, the difference in thermal properties between pulse and meat proteins is a technical challenge when incorporating pulse proteins with meat [63]. Even though processed meats are usually cooked to a final temperature of >65 °C to develop taste and texture and to make them microbiologically safe, these temperatures are not high enough to denature most plant proteins. This makes it more difficult for animal and plant proteins to interact, which is necessary to create a viscoelastic composite material framework [63]. However, prior heat treatments may facilitate the dissociation of protein subunits and partial structural unfolding [63]. As a consequence, preheat-treated pulse proteins will have improved functional capabilities such as emulsifying and water- and fat-binding in meat products. In general, heat treatment can be advantageous, particularly in deactivating oxidative enzymes, and may serve to improve the functional characteristics of pulse flours or proteins in formulations.

NOver the past decade, research has focused on IR heating as one of the thermal treatments for pulses to increase their suitability as ingredients for different foods. IR treatment is a rapid heating technique that employs IR electromagnetic radiation. IR heating is considered an advanced thermal process with reported benefits such as environmental friendliness and homogeneity of heating with low energy consumption. IR heating enhances liquid-binding and emulsifying properties, inactivates oxidative enzymes, reduces antinutritional factors, and protects antioxidative properties of pulses [16 17 18 103 117]. Meat products that contain fresh-comminuted meat or further processed to be ready-to-eat benefit from IR-treated pulse ingredients, showing improvements in product appearance, cook yield, oxidative stability, and nutrient availability while maintaining desired flavour and texture [16 17 18]. Thus, IR heating could serve as a viable treatment that can be used in pulse processing as a pre-treatment to enhance their functional properties for meat product applications.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods12081722

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