Archaeoacoustics Around the World: History
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Contributor:
Gustavo Navas-Reascos
,
Luz M. Alonso-Valerdi
,
David I. Ibarra-Zarate

Acoustics has been integrated with archaeology to better understand the social and cultural context of past cultures. Specifically, public events such as rituals or ceremonies, where an appreciation of sound propagation was required to hold an event. Various acoustic techniques have been used to study archaeological sites, providing information about the building characteristics and organizational structures of ancient civilizations. Archaeoacoustics is the application of acoustics in archaeological spaces.

  • archaeoacoustics
  • acoustic characterization
  • acoustic simulation
  • auralization
  • musical archaeological instruments

1. Introduction

Archaeoacoustics is the study of archaeological sites through their sound and acoustic characteristics [1][2][3]. Namely, it is the application of acoustics in archaeological spaces [1]. On the one hand, acoustics is a branch of physics that studies the production and propagation of sound waves. Furthermore, it could be defined as the study of the generation, transmission, and reception of energy found in the form of vibratory waves that move through matter, including fluids, solids, or gases [4]. On the other hand, archaeology could be defined as a social science that studies the material remains left by past societies [5]. Additionally, as Subias [6] states, historic archaeology could be defined as the study of the past that has a written record to base research on, while prehistoric is defined as the study of the past that does not have a written record.
Recently, the number of studies on sound generation and propagation in worldwide archaeological sites has been increasing since they have revealed the social and cultural behaviors of ancient societies [1][2]. For example, ancient builders considered auditory conditions (e.g., nature sounds) to make their constructions [2]. In addition to acoustics, archeology has also been supported by physics, anthropology, and architecture to study ancient daily activities, including all those where sound was a key element, such as music production [7].

2. Acoustics in Archaeological Places

2.1. Measurement and Characterization

Most investigations on this topic involve conducting measurements on-site at the selected locations, with the exception of the research in [8][9], where a replica of the site was created first. Most of these studies comply with the ISO 3382-1:2009 norm [10], except for [11]. Table 1 and Table 2 present the information related to the characterization of all these worldwide places. Additionally, the research of Đorđević [12] was identified, where a study of vessels was conducted inside churches in Serbia to determine if they were designed and used for acoustic purposes within buildings. The authors found that there is a certain regularity in the position of the vessels that influences the acoustics of the places they studied. Additionally, the investigation of D’Orazio [13] presents a review of acoustic theater designs from 15th to 19th century minor Italian Opera houses. Finally, three investigations using infra and ultrasound and vibration methods were identified to obtain the acoustic characteristics of the sites [14][15][16][17].
Table 1. Archaeoacoustics measurement and characterization of historical worldwide places.
Country Place Original Place or Replica Atmospheric Conditions (Temperature, Humidity, Wind Speed) Room Type Microphone and Sound Source Localization Achaeological Type
Malta [18] Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum Original Humidity and temperature were controlled, limiting the number of people at the place. Close room Four microphone positions and three sound source positions. Prehistoric
Greece [19] Acheiropoietos Basilica and the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia Original Measurements made at the same time of the day to have the same temperature and humidity. Close room Multiple microphone positions and source positions. Historic
Peru [11] The Huánuco Pampa Original Estimated temperature around 12–16 °C and the humidity between 47–68%. Open space Eight microphone positions and three sound source positions. Prehistoric
Spain/England/Cyprus [20] Spanish Prehistoric Painted Caves/Stonehenge/Paphos Theater Original - Open space - Prehistoric
England [8] Stonehenge–Scale model Replica - Open space 34 microphone positions and six sound source positions. Prehistoric
Italy [21] Theater of Tyndaris Original The temperature was between 26.2–28.8 °C. The humidity was between 45–79.4%. The wind speed was between 0.25–1.7 m/s. Open space Nine microphone positions and two sound source positions. Prehistoric
Spain [22] Theater of Carthago Nova and the theater of Saguntum Original The temperature was 32 °C in Cartagena and 21.6 °C in Saguntum. The humidity was 49% in Cartagena and 46.3% in Saguntum. The wind speed was less than 0.5 m/s. Open space 20 microphone positions in Carthago, 34 microphone positions in Saguntum, and three sound source positions. Historic
Mexico [23] Mexico City Cathedral Original The temperature was 21 °C. The humidity was between 34–35%. Close room Several microphones position. Several sound sources position. Historic
Spain [24] Roman theater and
amphitheater of Segobriga, Spain		 Original The temperature was between 27.9–44.3 °C. In the theater and 18.4–41.7 °C in the amphitheater.
The relative humidity range in the theater was 17–44.4% and in the amphitheater was 21.2–76.1%) with air velocity less than 0.5 m/s.		 Open space Three sound sources, 19 microphone positions in the theater; three sound sources and 15 microphone positions in the amphitheater. Historic
Turkey [25] Eight historical mosques in the Aegean Region Original - Close room Several microphone positions around the mosques, and one sound source was in front of the mihrab in each case. Historic
Italy [26] Teatro Nuovo of Spoleto and the Teatro Alighieri of Ravenna Original - Close room The sound source was placed on the stage and in the orchestra pit. Receivers were placed in 38 places in the stelas and 14 in balconies. The sound source was placed at 1.4 m from the floor and the receivers were at the height of 1.2 m on stalls and boxes. Historic
Russia [27] Rachmaninov Hall, which is part of the Moscow Conservatory Original - Close room The dodecahedron sound source was placed in the center of the stage at 1.5 m and 10 microphones were distributed in the audience area. A microphone was placed inside the vessel in the middle lower row. Historic
Spain [28] Palace of Charles V Original The temperature, humidity and barometric pressure was measured. Open space Three source positions were selected on the stage. Sixteen microphone positions on the stage and ten in the audience. Historic
France [29] Cathédrale Notre-Dame, Paris Original Temperature and humidity were measured. Close room The sources were near the altar and the microphones in the central nave. Historic
Spain [30] Cathedral of Cadiz Original - Close room The sound source positions were the high altar, the pulpit, the choir, the organ position, the retrochoir, and the crypt. Historic
El Salvador [9] Replica of the Ceren Temazcal Replica - Close room Not reported. Prehistoric
Italy [31] Catholic church of Budrio Original - Close room One source was placed in the nave, another under the dome, and the last in the middle of these areas. Historic
India [32] Kanheri Caves Original - Close room Some points around the caves. Historic
Italy [33] Teatro 1763 in Bologna Original - Close room The sound source was located in two positions on the stage and microphones in eleven different positions in the stalls and the first gallery. Historic
Egypt [34] 20 Iwan masjids (mosques) Original The ambient temperature and humidity were monitored and recorded. 9 semi-closed and 11 closed A minimum of twelve decay curves, distributed randomly across the rooms (or half of the symmetric rooms when it is applicable), were collected (6 per sound source location). Historic
Italy [35] Catacombs of San Callisto, Catacombs of San Gennaro, Catacombs of Vigna Cassia Original - Close room The sound sources were positioned at different points in the catacombs. Historic
Italy [36] Teatro Comunale in Trevisa Vittorio Emanuele in Messina, Teatro Galli in Rini Original - Close room The records were obtained in 25 measuring points in stalls and balconies. The sound source was located on the stage and orchestra pit. Historic
Table 2. Systems and procedures used in measurements and characterization of studies reported in Table 1.
Country Measurement Information Registration System Measured Parameter Reverberation Time Reported (Seconds)
Hardware Software
Malta [18] The microphones and loudspeakers were placed at different points, and a frequency sweep from 20 Hz to 20 kHz was used. Portable sound source and two
omnidirectional microphones.		 Odeon, Sonic Visualizer, and Audacity T30, T20, EDT, D50, C7, C50, C80, STI, SPL and ALcons T30 up to 16 s at 63 Hz in Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum
Greece [19] An 8 s logarithmic sine sweep from 20 Hz to 24 kHz was used and played ten times per microphone location. Measurement microphones
and directional powered speaker system.		 - EDT, C80, T60 T60 2.72 s at 500 Hz in Acheiropoietos Basilica. T60 2.86 s at 500 Hz in Cathedral of Hagia Sophia
Peru [11] An exponential sinusoidal sweep was used. Audio recorder, portable sound source, and sound source connected to a smartphone. Octave, Matlab, Sonic Visualizer, and Audacity SPL -
Spain/England/Cyprus [20] - Omnidirectional sound source. Odeon T30, EDT EDT 1.54 s average (125–1000 Hz) in Pasiega Turret Cave. EDT 1.79 s average (125–2000 Hz) in Paphos Theatre
England [8] A scale model replica of Stonehenge was made and characterized. A one-second logarithmic sine sweep was used. Measurement microphone and tweeters sound sources. - T30, EDT, D50, G T30 0.6 s average in Stonehenge scale model
Italy [21] An impulse sound produced by a firecracker blast was used, and an exponential sine sweep signal reproduced by the loudspeaker was used. Measurement condenser microphone, omnidirectional sound source, and a firecracker blast. Dirac, Aurora, and Matlab T20, C80, C50, G T20 0.57 s average in Theatre of Tyndaris
Spain [22] A frequency sweep from 63 Hz to 16 kHz was used. Ambisonic microphones, Head Acoustics, measurement microphone, and omnidirectional sound source. Iris T30, T20, EDT, C80, D50, G T30 1.92 s average in Carthago Nova Theatre. T30 2.25 s average in Saguntum Theatre.
Mexico [23] Acoustic measurements using impulsive noise were made. A gun generated the noise. Four measurement condenser microphones and a gun. Matlab EDT, T30, T20, C80, and D50 T30 14.45 s at 500 Hz in Mexico City cathedral
Spain [24] The impulse response was made with sine-swept signals. The frequency range would cover the octave bands from 63 Hz to 16 kHz. Multipattern condenser microphone. The binaural RIRs were obtained with a Head Acoustics torso simulator. Easera EDT, T30, T20, T10, C80, D50, G T30 0.45 s average in the Theatre. T30 1.3 s average in the amphitheater
Turkey [25] Acoustic measurements using MLS signals were made. Omnidirectional sound source, omnidirectional microphone, and handheld analyzer. Dirac T30, EDT, C80, D50, STI T30 between 1.15 s and 1.99 s in the 8 mosques
Italy [26] Exponential sine sweep with a frequency range from 40 Hz to 20 kHz. Omnidirectional sound source, binaural dummy head, radiomicrophones. Mlssa EDT, T20, C50, C80, D50 T20 1.1 s at 500 Hz in Teatro Nuovo. T20 1.25 s at 500 Hz in Teatro Alighieri
Russia [27] Impulse responses were measured. Dodecahedral omnidirectional
sound source.		 - C80, EDT, T60 T60 2.18 s at 500 Hz in Rachmaninov Hall
Spain [28] Exponential sine sweeps were used. A dodecahedral source, the signal was recorded using 4 microphones and an Ambisonic head. Aurora T30, T20, EDT, D50, STI, C80, G T30 2.25 s average in Palace of Charles V
France [29] Sine sweeps were used. Dodecahedron acoustic
source, portable
recording devices, two omnidirectional microphones, and two autonomous 3D microphones.		 Matlab T20 T20 8 s at 500 Hz (1987). T20 6.8 s at 500 Hz (2015) T20 5 s at 500 Hz (2020) in Cathédrale Notre-Dame
Spain [30] Sine sweeps were used. The impulse responses were recorded at a sample rate of 48 kHz and 16 bit. Measurements were carried out at night, with the church unoccupied and the background noise was at a minimum. Dodecahedral sound source, eight microphones. Easera EDT, T30 T30 between 9.49 s and 9.8 s at 500 Hz in Cathedral of Cadiz
El Salvador [9] A balloon was burst to generate impulsive noise. Portable audio recorder. REW Normal modes of the place -
Italy [31] Sine sweep signals were used. Dodecahedron sound source, three monoaural microphones, and a spherical microphone. Matlab EDT, T30, C50, C80, G T30 2.36 s average in Catholic church of Budrio
India [32] A balloon was burst to generate impulsive noise. First Order Ambisonic recorder and balloons. Aurora EDT, D50, C50, C80, T10, T20, T30 T30 5.145 s average in Cave 3. T30 2.0235 s average in Cave 1. T30 4.7698 s in Cave 11 in Kanheri Caves
Italy [33] Exponential sine sweep was used as an excitation signal, and the impulse responses. IR were measured. Dodecahedron sound source, B-Format microphone, dummy head and omnidirectional microphone. Aurora T20, T30, C50, C80, D50, Ts, EDT T30 1.2 s average in Teatro 1763 in Bologna
Egypt [34] A balloon was burst to generate impulsive noise. Balloons, portable audio recorder, and omnidirectional microphone. Dirac EDT, T20, T30, and T60
C50, and D50.		 T20 between 1.238 s and 2.465 s in 19 mosques and T20 6.936 s in Hassan Mosque
Italy [35] A balloon was burst to generate impulsive noise. Balloons, microphone.   STI, T30, EDT, C80, and D50 T30 over 2 s at 63 Hz in catacombs of San Gennaro.
T30 less than 1 s at all frequencies in catacombs of San Callisto. T30 just over 0.5 s in catacombs of Vigna Cassia
Italy [36] Exponential sine sweep One loudspeaker, four eight-channel converter, an audio interface, 25 microphones. Aurora T10, T20, T30, EDT, C50, C80, CT, LF, IACC, STI T30 1.42 s at 500 Hz in Teatro Gall

2.2. Rock Art

Table 3 describes the investigations related to rock art studies worldwide. In general, works in this category attempted to identify whether acoustic phenomena influenced ancient cultures to select those specific locations for making their paintings. In particular, Diaz Andreu found evidence that inhabitants painted in places with a high level of reverberant sound since they considered the echo to be magical or extraordinary [37]. Waller concluded that some sites were chosen for rock art due to echo, while others were selected due to sound propagation characteristics, as the inhabitants chose these places since sounds could be heard at great distances [38]. Indeed, areas where murals were often painted were generally identified as places with particular acoustic characteristics, such as long reverberation times.
Table 3. Systems and procedures used in rock art studies identified.
Place Measurement Information Registration Hardware System Measured Parameter Study Description Results Archaeological Type
Caves of La Garma, Las Chimeneas, La Pasiega, El Castillo, and Tito Bustillo. Spain [39] A sine sweep from 20 Hz to 20 kHz was used. The microphones were separated 1 m from the wall paints. Portable sound source and omnidirectional condenser microphone. EDT, T30, C80, D50 Impulse response at specific positions in the cave was captured, where wall paintings (motifs) are. Other measurements in walls without images were taken to compare the information obtained. Statistical associations between the positioning of motifs and acoustic responses were found in the analyses. The motifs were generally placed where the reverberation is moderate, and there is resonance. Prehistoric
Rock art landscapes of Baume Brune and Valle d’Ividoro. France/Italy [40] Air balloons were used for the impact sounds. The microphones were put at a distance greater than 17 m from the reflecting surfaces. Air balloons, tetrahedral microphone, and audio recorder. - Ambisonics technique for capturing the sound was used. The few painted shelters were those that echolocators would identify as having unique acoustic properties. It is probably that Neolithic artists selected shelters based on some acoustics parameters. Prehistoric
Canyon lakes of Julma-Ölkky, Somerjärvi and Rotkojärvi. Finland [41] Sine sweep was used. Audio recorder, omnidirectional microphones, and omnidirectional sound source. - They try to understand more about the soundscape of the place and if any acoustic characteristics were probably considered. The most pronounced echoes are reflected from the smooth vertical cliffs painted or held as sacred. Prehistoric
Lascaux cave. France [42] Concussion idiophone was used. Class 1 sound level meter. T60, C50, D50, C80, EDT Two caves were compared. The T60 found is high. Prehistoric
Santa Teresa Canyon. Mexico [43] Air balloons were used for the generation of impulse response. Omnidirectional condenser microphone, audio recorder, and air balloons. G, T20, C50, C80 The sound source was placed at the height of 1.7 m. Inhabitants were interested in sound. The areas where the murals were painted generally correspond to places with high values of the parameters obtained. Additionally, it is thought that dance was also part of their rituals. Prehistoric
Sierra de San Serván in Extremadura. Spain [44] Directional-powered speaker system was at 90.7 dB at 1 m. Omnidirectional condenser microphone. Transmission Loss (TL) The sound source was placed between 130 and 310 m. Results show that the signal received at rock art sites is louder than at nonrock art shelters. Prehistoric
Maharashtra. India [32] Air balloons were used for the generation of impulse response. Ambisonic recorder, air balloons. C50, T60, T30, T20, EDT, STI The recorder was placed far from the walls and the floor. The binaural recorder was set at 48 kHz and 8 bits or 48 kHz and 16 bits. A total 109 caves were studied, but measurements were made only in three of them. The highest reverberation time was found in cave number 3. Prehistoric
Lower Chuya River. Russia [45] They used impulse response signal. Audio recorder, ambisonics microphone, and dodecahedral speaker. G, T20, EDT, C50, C80 The distance source–receiver was about 10 m, except on Kalbi-Tash I, for which the distance was 17 m. Three rock arts were studied. The loudness from a natural amplification of sound could be the reason for the selection of the murals. Prehistoric
Xaghra Hypogeum, Malta [46] Clapping, bells, and drum Two types of dynamic high-end microphones, portable digital recorder - The measurements were carried out in two places, the first in a deep well near a stone staircase that leads to the hypogeum and the second in a collapsed cave that overlooks the hypogeum. The authors concluded that the Xaghra Stone Circle was an important sacred site in ancient times because the vibrations could influence human perception, making their rituals impressive. Prehistoric

2.3. Simulation, Auralization, and Virtualization

Table 4 describes the worldwide investigations on simulation, auralization, and virtualization studies. Many of the studies specified the software used, such as CATT-Acoustic, Odeon, Ease, Comsol, Ramsete, IRIS, Dirac, Google Resonance, and Steam Audio. An article by Llorca-Bofí [47] was identified, where simulations and auralizations were carried out from a photogrammetric model of a room. Similar simulations to those performed with manual 3D models were obtained, so this method could be used in other studies. Additionally, a study by Boren [48] was identified, which aimed to determine whether the staging of speeches given by Julius Caesar in ancient Rome were acoustically plausible. Furthermore, an investigation was identified where the acoustic properties of the musical genre Liederistic were studied through an acoustic simulation using the Ramsete software [49].
Table 4. Systems and procedures used in simulation, auralization, and virtualization studies identified.
Author Approach Software Objective Results Archaeological Type
Cathedral of Granada. Spain [50] Acoustic measurement and 3D model CATT-Acoustic software The parameters were simulated and compared with the information obtained from the measurements. They obtain the predicted acoustic parameters T30, C80, and D50 and how the sounds, especially music (choirs), could be heard in the past. Historic
Royal Palace of Caserta. Italy [51] Acoustic measurement and 3D plane Odeon The acoustic parameters of the simulated space were obtained. It was shown that the vaults were usually where the musicians were placed in the rituals. Historic
Greek and Roman theaters [52] Simulation Odeon The acoustic parameters were simulated, considering that people entirely occupied the theater. They identify through simulation that there is a decrease in energy, especially in low frequencies because of the audience in the cavea of the theaters. Historic
Laboratory simulation [53] Simulation Odeon and CATT-Acoustic software A comparison of the simulations obtained using Odeon and CATT-Acoustic software. They concluded that Odeon is more sensitive to variation in sound absorption than CATT-Acoustic software. -
Las Pailas. Argentina [54] Acoustic measurement and 3D model Comsol Analysis of how architecture could affect sound dispersion in public places within ancient settlements. They were able to identify the possible places where people were located around the archaeological place, to be able to see and hear what was happening properly; they consider this investigation as a preliminary study that is limited by the lack of information such as the height of the walls. Prehistoric
Hypostyle mosque of Cordoba. Spain [55] Auralization, simulation, and 3D of the area CATT-Acoustic software A 3D model of the area was developed to obtain similar acoustic parameters between the measurements and the simulation. Different constructive configurations of the mosque were simulated, obtaining different acoustic characteristics and auralizations of the place in the past. Historic
Rostra and the podium of the Castores
Temple in Rome. Italy [56]		 Simulation CATT-Acoustic software Estimation of the number of Romans who could have heard the speaker clearly. They indicated that around 300 people could understand the discourse in this place. Prehistoric
St. John Baptistery in Pisa. Italy [57] Simulation - Comprehension of the acoustic phenomena of the place. After the simulations, a T60 higher than 10 s within this place was found. Historic
Gothic Vadstena abbey church. Sweden [58] Simulation and a 3D model Odeon A 3D model of a church was produced to investigate the sound propagation of that church in 1470. The authors concluded that there were spaces with acoustic differences, such as the place used by the nuns that has a shorter EDT, a major G, and an improved C80, compared to the rest of the church. Historic
Church of San Luis de Los Franceses. Spain [59] Acoustic analysis of the church and simulation CATT-Acoustic software They considered different uses, occupations, and sound sources to investigate how the place has changed acoustically over time from 18th to 21st century. The changes over time have not been significant, this is since there have not been such important variations in its construction characteristics, although some coatings have been modified, the changes have been minor, keeping the acoustics similar. Historic
Cathedral of Saint Albert Puglia. Italy [60] Acoustic simulation and 3D model Odeon and Ease software An acoustic simulation of the space cathedral of Saint Albert in the archaeological site Montecorvino. VR simulation was made, and a binaural playback system where users listened to some medieval music. Historic
Cathedral of Saint Albert Puglia. Italy [61] Acoustic simulation and 3D model Odeon and Ease software An acoustic simulation of the space cathedral of Saint Albert in the archaeological site Montecorvino. It describes in detail the information related to the acoustics procedure of paper [60]. Historic
Hall of St. Cecilia, a concert hall. Scotland [62] Compared different auralization methods Google Resonance and Steam Audio They recreated the place and made a 3D model in actual conditions and a recreation of the site in 1769. They found that the listeners qualified better 1769 acoustic characterization of the place. Historic
14th-century church of the Jeromite monastery of Santa Maria de la Murta. Spain [63] Virtual acoustic reconstruction, simulation, and auralization CATT-Acoustic software They tried to detail the history of la Murta (a church in ruins) through acoustic reconstruction and auralization. It was virtually reconstructed to have an idea of its environmental condition. They made a virtual reconstruction of the church using the ruins and archives.
They validated the acoustics with a similar existing church such as Sant Miquel dels Reis, or El Escorial, obtaining only approximate results.		 Historic
Lazarica Church. Serbia [64] Acoustic measurements and simulation Ease software The aim was to learn more about the traditions and practices carried out inside the church, focused mainly on acoustics. They verified that the decay of the sound energy was uniform for the whole place. It was performed using the parameters T30 and EDT. Historic
Thomaskirche church. Germany [65] Acoustic measurements and simulation CATT-Acoustic software They made a simulation of the church in two historical moments: in the time of J.S. Bach in 1723 and the time of the Lutheran church in 1539. The T60 in the simulation of the empty church in 1723 has less than in the simulation of 1539. In 1723, there were more galleries that reduced the T60. The T60 was similar in the two simulations when they were full of people. Historic
The Alighieri Theatre. Italy [66] Acoustic measurements and simulation Odeon They made a comparison with and without the proscenium of a Historical Opera House. The proscenium helped to highlight the sound of the voice, although it is misleading in terms of clarity. Historic
Palais du Trocadero. France [67] Simulation CATT-Acoustic software The objective was to conduct simulations to determine if the absorbent material improved the acoustic conditions of the concert hall. This paper concluded that the architects who built the place ignored the reflection that produces echo, and that the absorbent material placed later does not solve this problem. Historic
Cistercian Beaulieu Abbey. United Kingdom [68] Acoustic measurement and recreation of the place CATT-Acoustic software The objective was to recreate acoustically the destroyed Cistercian Beaulieu Abbey. They concluded that there were good intelligibility conditions from the altar to the Abbey but very poor towards the central nave. Historic
Bell Church in Cappadocia. Turkey [69] Measurement, simulation, and auralization Odeon They made tests with an impedance tube to determine the absorption of the materials and recreate the place. The sound coefficients of absorption demonstrated that the tuff stones were very reflective. Researchers concluded that the clarity of the place might not be clear for liturgical events. Historic
The Roman amphitheater located in Santa Maria Capua. Italy [70] Measurement, simulation and 3D model Odeon The objective was to make a 3D model of the place for calibrating the absorption coefficients to restore its original activity: that is, the presentation of shows. The acoustic simulation showed more balanced responses from the place than the measurements. Historic
The Roman theater of Verona. Italy [71] Measurement, simulation and 3D model Ramsete The objective was to carry out a reconstruction of the open-air theater through a 3D model. The acoustic conditions of the theater diminished because of the absence of some elements, such as the upper gallery. Historic
Cathedral and Metropolitical Church of St Peter. United Kingdom [72] Measurement, simulation and 3D model WinMLS2004 and IRIS The objective was to evaluate the acoustics of the Chapter House of the Cathedral. The results show that the design gives priority to the visual, but not to the acoustic due to the high reverberation that causes speech intelligibility problems. Historic
The Roman theater in Malaga. Spain [73] Measurement, simulation and 3D model Odeon The aim was to investigate the acoustic effects that produced the closeness of the Muslim Alcazaba and the hillside over the Roman theater. The results show that there is an influence of the hill and the large stone that is near the theater on the time decay parameters. Historic
Hagia Sophia and Süleymaniye Mosque. Turkey [74] Measurement and simulation Odeon The aim was to investigate the effects of architecture, construction material attributes, and applied alterations in basic restoration works. The principal difference between the two structures is that Hagia Sophia was designed as a church, and Süleymaniye is a mosque, which means that the acoustic characteristics are very different between them. Historic
Cathédrale Notre-Dame, París Francia [75] Simulation with scale models Matlab The study investigates the sound in seven relevant designs and the architectural style itself. It was found that small geometrical features produce diffuse reflections similar to surface diffusers. There are also low-level resonances due to complex forms that are a small part of the total energy; also, great spectral differences between piers were observed. Historic
Four churches in Spain [76] Measurement and simulation Easera with Aubion This study develops the acoustic evolution of the choir in cathedrals in Spain. The choir is reserved for the clergy; therefore, it has an acoustic influence in the cathedrals space. Historic
Roman theater of Posillipo. Italy [77] Measurement and 3D model Odeon The research aim was to reconstruct the theater acoustically as it sounded in the Imperial period. Currently, the theater presents good conditions for understanding speech. With the simulation of the past, they confirmed that the acoustic characteristics should be favorable for speech. Prehistoric
Cassino, Taormina, Pompeii and Benevento. Italy [78] Measurement and virtual model Dirac and Oden software The investigation aim was to determine the acoustics effects of the audience on ancient theaters. The simulations show that the geometry of the theater and the area occupied is important for getting better acoustical results. Historic
Five ancient Roman theaters. Italy [79] Measurement and virtual simulation Dirac and Oden software This study compares the acoustics characteristics of five theaters, considering their architecture and the materials used in their restorations. The results show some insufficient acoustic characteristics, and values of the reverberation time that do not exceed 1 s.
Additionally, the results show that the absence of reflective surfaces makes the acoustics into a challenge.		 Historic
Theatre of Syracusae, Italy [80] Measurement and simulation Odeon The study aims were to investigate which parameters could be considered the better for the design of new scenarios. Due to the use of the ISO 3382-1:2009 standard, the evaluation of the best acoustic parameters for the implementation of simulations of models of open places is complicated. Prehistoric
Cathedral of Seville. Spain [81] Measurement and simulation CATT-Acoustic software This study evaluates the acoustic of the cathedral, considering different configurations used for concerts and other ceremonies. The massive attendance of people improves the acoustic conditions of the cathedral for concerts. Nevertheless, with the use of new materials, the acoustic could be improved. Historic
Cathedral of Seville. Spain [82] Virtual 3D models and auralization WinMLS2004 and CATT-Acoustic software The paper presents the VR results in the Cathedral of Seville and describes the processes of creation and calibration of a 3D model. The perception was validated with a questionnaire that showed that the Cathedral of Seville was acceptable for choral singing and music. Still, it had the problem that it is reverberant for word transmission. Historic
The Bayreuth Festspielhaus theater, Germany [83] Measurement, simulation, and virtual experience Odeon This research aimed to determine the role of the BF theater through acoustic measurements and then develop an immersive virtual experience. In the BF, all acoustic and visual conditions are almost the same in the whole theater. Historic
Cathedral of Notre-Dame, France [84] Measurement and simulation CATT-Acoustic software The aim of the research was to recreate the cathedral of the 12th and 13th centuries and to understand the relationship that existed between the occupants and the acoustic characteristics of the place. The results show an acoustic evolution occurred between 1163 and 1220. Historic
Cathedral of Notre-Dame, France [85] Measurement and simulation CATT-Acoustic software The aim was to study the modifications presented in the transept and side chapels of the Notre-Dame Cathedral. The changes in terms of T30 and EDT considering the modifications in the transept and chapels were small. Historic
Berlin Konzerthaus, Lviv Opera House, Germany and Teatro del Maggio Musicale in Florence, Italy [86] 3D modeling, auralization, and virtualization - The objective of the research was to develop three different approaches to the theater halls for realizing 3D, auralization, and immersive virtualization of the selected places. The methodology used allowed modeling and rendering as a means of protecting and preserving a virtual memory of places. Historic
Miners’ Theatre in Idrija, Slovenia [87] Measurement and simulation Ramsete The purpose of the investigation was to recreate the place in its original form and simulate the measurements with and without people. The results show that the place was propitious for oral presentations but inappropriate for musical presentations. Historic
Benevento Roman Theatre, Italy [88] Measurement and simulation - The objective was to evaluate the acoustic characteristics to understand the optimal
types of theatrical performances that could be performed.		 The theater lacks reflective surfaces that provide good acoustics for musical performance. Historic
Church of San Dominic of Foligno and San Dominic of Imola, Italy [89] Measurement and simulation Ramsete The objective was to highlight the importance of using acoustic simulations in historical places to improve the sound inside them. S. Dominic church of Imola is more reverberant than S. Dominic of Foligno, and there is a big difference between the two churches in the parameters C80 and D50. Historic
Tindari Theatre, Italy. Notre-Dame de Paris Cathedral, France. The Houses of Parliament, United Kingdom [90] Simulation and auralization - The objective of the project was to create a prototype that allows the conservation of historical sites in very poor condition so that it can be used by museums or interested persons. The software was developed to combine documentation processes with acoustic simulations of historical places and thus preserve the places. Historic
Roman theater of Gortyna, Greek [91] 3D model, simulation Odeon The objective of the investigation was to determine what uses the theater could have had. According to the acoustics of the theater, it was shown that it could have been used to give talks and performances since the spoken word is heard easily and clearly. Historic
20 Ancient Greek Theatres, Greek [92] Simulation CATT-Acoustic software, Odeon The aim was to demonstrate the acoustic importance of the scenery for the people’s comfort in the ancient Italian theaters Putting up a removable scenery could help protect ancient theatrical monuments. Historic
Roman theater of Cadiz, Spain [93] 3D model, simulation CATT-Acoustic software The purpose of the paper was to build a 3D model and the simulation of the places where the excavations were carried out, which are the cavea, the proedria, the orchestra place, and an annular gallery. The results show that the theater is highly reverberant due to its large dimensions and the stone finish despite being semiopen. Historic
Theater Odeon of Pompeii, Italy [94] Measurement and simulation Dirac The article analyzes the current acoustic characteristics of the Odeon to reconstruct virtually and present suggestions for its future use. The building in its current state is suitable for spoken performances while adding a wooden roof could be suited to musical performances. Historic
Andalusian cathedrals, Seville, Granada, Jaen, Malaga, Cadiz, Cordoba Spain [95] Measurement and simulation WinMLS2004 This paper aims to preserve the sound of the cathedrals through simulations. The authors concluded that cathedrals have a reverberation time above those considered acoustically appropriate for transmitting words and music. Historic
Carsı Mosque, Turkey [96] Measurement and simulation Odeon The objective of the investigation was to the change suffered by the acoustic parameters related to the materials and density of the walls, as well as the people who are in the place. The results showed that if the place is full of people and the type of surface is changed, the acoustic parameters of the site change, especially in relation to low frequencies. Historic
San Domenico of Imola, Italy [97] Measurement and simulation Ramsete The purpose of the investigation was to determine if it is possible to turn the Domenico of Imola church into a place to listen to music. The authors determined that converting the church into a temporary auditorium for listening to music was complicated since it did not have an appropriate acoustic design. Still, they gave suggestions to reduce external noise. Historic
The Odea of Pompeii and Posillipo, Italy [98] Measurement and simulation Odeon The purpose of the article was to study the acoustic characteristics of two Odeons (covered buildings), the largest located in Pompeii and the smallest in Posillipo, Naples. The results showed that the Odeon of Pompeii, which is the largest, is appropriate for music and that of Posillipo was appropriate for speech. Both
Cathedral of Benevento, Italy [99] Measurement and simulation Odeon The objective of this work was to carry out acoustic measurements of the church and then test ceramic materials to correct the acoustics of the place. It was determined that the use of ceramic material and microperforated sheets could perform a good acoustic correction. Historic
Chaco Canyon, United States [100] 3D Model, simulation Soundshed Analysis Tool (authors development) The research sought to conduct an acoustic simulation of the archaeological site to gain a better understanding of the soundscape of the area. The mounds were constructed in a specific location to serve as a stage for political theater, that everyone could see around the Downtown Chaco. Prehistoric
Eszterháza Opera House, Hungary [101] 3D Model, simulation Ramsete This study aimed to obtain the original acoustic characteristics of the place when it was first built. To do this, the study was based on historical information. The reverberation time is favorable for both music and speech transmission. The audience presence had little impact on the acoustics of the theater. Historic

3. Musical Instruments and Pieces

Table 5 summarizes the worldwide research on studies of musical instruments and pieces. The most studied instruments include turtle shells, bullroarers, aerophones, notched idiophones, and wind instruments.
Table 5. Systems and procedures used in musical instruments and pieces studies identified.
Place Instrument Objective Results Archaeological Type
United States [102] Turtle shells with holes It was analyzed in different ways if the holes made in the tortoiseshell were produced by humans with some specific use, for example, to make music. It has not been fully established that they were built to generate music, but they were likely used for that purpose. Prehistoric
Africa [103] Instruments called bullroarers Replicas of these instruments were made and recorded to find their acoustic characteristics. They indicated that it is essential to carry out more studies to understand the cultural contexts in which musical instruments were used. Prehistoric
Africa [104] Bullroarers Recreation of bullroarers to identify the acoustic characterization. The characterizations of different bullroarers were obtained and demonstrated that they could be used to produce different musical sounds. Prehistoric
Belize and Guatemala [105] Wind instruments Based on photographs of existing musical instruments found in Belize and Guatemala, they made a 3D impression of them. Then, they recorded the 3D instruments to obtain their sound characteristics. The results show similarities in physical characteristics compared with the photographs of the original instrument. Nevertheless, they could not evaluate the sounds with the original. Prehistoric
Campeche, Mexico, and Copán in Honduras [106] Wind instruments This investigation carried out an acoustic characterization of wind instruments in Campeche and Copán. The acoustic characterizations of wind instruments such as flutes were carried out in Campeche and Copán. Prehistoric
Campeche, Mexico [107] Aerophones This investigation carried out an acoustic characterization of aerophones in Campeche. Several wind instruments with different sound characteristics were studied.  
State of Mexico [108] Notched idiophones This investigation carried out an acoustic characterization of notched idiophones in the state of Mexico. Acoustic characterizations of notched idiophones were carried out. The use of skulls placed under these idiophones to generate sound amplification was studied. Prehistoric
Teotihuacan, Mexico [109] Horns, trumpets, and pipes This research studied the acoustics of wind instruments in Teotihuacan. The fragmented state of the artifacts presented needed reconstruction to obtain the original sounds. Prehistoric
Teotihuacan, Mexico [110] Quadruple flutes This study created a 3D model of quadruple flute in Teotihuacan. The authors made a 3D impression of the upper part of one of the quadruple flutes to understand the operation of this flute better. However, they do not present an associated acoustic analysis. Prehistoric
China [111] The qin is a seven-string zither The objective is to explore the few acoustic studies carried out on the Chinese instrument qin. The fundamental frequencies of the qin strings are lower than the sound box. Prehistoric
Sudan [112] Rock gongs This study analyzes the acoustic properties of rock gongs in relation to the surrounding landscape. The investigation confirms that the rock gongs could produce sustained musical sounds. Prehistoric

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/app13042361

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