This encyclopedia article explores the phenomena of second (L2) and third language (L3) learning, along with the motivational dynamics that underlie L2 and L3 acquisition, as intricate dynamic systems within the realm of multilingual education. The article proposes a conceptual framework for a dual-motivation system, which aims to characterize the nature of L2-L3 motivational forces that can be utilized in the learning of additional languages.
The commonplace assumption that the majority of individuals possess only monolingual competencies is misguided. In fact, multilingualism or the potential for it is the norm, as noted by Hammarberg (2009). This article examines the phenomenon of second (L2) and third language (L3) learning, as well as the motivational dynamics that underlie L2 and L3 acquisition. Then, a conceptual framework for a dual-motivation system is proposed to capture the nature of the motivational forces that drive L2 and L3 learning. This framework is intended to inform the learning of additional languages within the context of multilingual education.
Bloomfield (1935) classically defined a first language (L1) as one learned from birth, also known as a native language or mother tongue. A person can have multiple L1s upon growing up in a multilingual environment. Lenneberg (1967) proposed the concept of a critical period for language learning, arguing that native-level proficiency is more likely acquired before puberty. Meanwhile, some recent studies (e.g., Birdsong 1999; Bialystok and Kroll 2018; Singleton and Muñoz 2011) also challenge this view. The notion of a second language (L2) is more complex. An L2 broadly refers to any language learned in addition to one's native language, which could be one's third (L3), fourth (L4) language, and so on. Conventionally, an L2 is distinguished from a foreign language based on sociolinguistic significance, though that is not our concern here.
The conventional L1-L2 distinction is debated. Hammarberg (2014) proposed two L1-L2 differentiation criteria. The first concerns chronological order: an L1 develops first and an L2 is added later, based on priority and posteriority. The second criterion relies on cognitive maturity, distinguishing a native from non-native language encountered before versus after L1 development, respectively. The second criterion better applies to multiple early-learned L1s versus later-learned L2s based on age-related cognitive maturity. However, recent scholarship rejects this dichotomy and views a new L3 as distinct from existing L2s. Hammarberg (2010) defined L3 as "a non-native language currently used or acquired where a person has one or more L2s in addition to one or more L1s" (p. 97).
Multilingualism requires learning and potentially ongoing learning of multiple languages, and the relationships between these languages are of central importance. The Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST), a metatheory for understanding dynamic and complex systems, has become increasingly relevant in recent years for understanding language learning motivation and second language acquisition. While not dismissing the importance of object theories of language, CDST offers a systemic perspective for conceptualizing language-related theories. In CDST, a complex system is composed of a large number of agents that are constantly interacting with each other in a non-linear manner, leading to sensitive dependence on initial conditions and the emergence of an ever-changing state. CDST has been applied to language and its learning, with language development viewed as interconnected systems that depend sensitively on initial states. The emergence of an ever-changing state captures the language learning process within and among individuals.
The study of L2 and L3 motivation has highlighted the distinctive nature of these two systems and the need for a nuanced understanding of their complex interactions. Man et al. (2018) found that L2 and L3 motivational scales exhibited divergent trends in almost every aspect of motivational components, suggesting that they should be considered as separate constructs. Similarly, Henry's (2011a, 2012) findings supported the existence of a separate L3 motivation and identity from those associated with an existing L2. However, the relationship between L2 and L3 motivation is not only separate but also related to each other and can exert reciprocal influences as they take place within an individual learner. Man et al. (2018) showed that L3 Japanese learners held a consistent attitude towards the languages being learned and the speakers and communities of these additional languages, indicating a global orientation rather than "integrativeness" in Gardner's terms. This research also points to a high affinity between L2 and L3 motivation in terms of instrumentality. However, learners have competing demands on cognitive resources and competing directions in which effortful behaviours can be channelled, leading to both collaborative and competitive mutual influences in this dual-motivation system.
If we agree to the proposed dual-motivation system, an imminent question arises as to which subsystem will become dominant in a specific situation. Markus and Nurius (1986, as cited in Henry 2014) believe that the individual possesses a range of different domain-specific possible selves, but only the possible selves that have been triggered by a particular situation and are contextually salient will get activated in cognition at any particular instance in time. Therefore, L2 and L3 subsystems of motivation may not work simultaneously but instead wait for contextual cues to mobilise them into generating and directing motivated behaviours. This dual-motivation system, where L2 and L3 selves coexist to generate a multilingual self-concept as a complex system, still has sensitive dependence on its initial condition.
The input of an additional L3 motivational drive is likely to induce comparisons between L2 and L3 learning experiences, which may lead to erosion of the vitality of the positive L2-self, and fuel negative attitudes towards the L2 previously learned. The growth and attrition of L3 motivation occur in a nonlinear fashion and show chaotic developmental trajectories when a diversity of contextual factors come into play. Therefore, it is necessary to gain a nuanced understanding of the complex interactions between L2 and L3 motivation to support effective language learning.
The last question is related to the terminology per se. NNLs should be differentiated into two levels, i.e., L2s and L3s, based on cognitive maturity. It is, therefore, more sensible to make a two-level rather than a multi-level distinction between the complex multilingual learning motivational dynamics. However, it is important to recognize that such a division is made in recognition of the dual-motivation system as a wholistic unity within an individual learner. The two subsystems of L2 and L3 interact to enable the formation of the dual-motivation system.
4. Implication of the Dual-Motivation System for Teaching Additional Languages
The discussion on the dual-motivation system has important pedagogical implications for multilingualism, particularly for L3 learning. Based on the work of Jessner (2008), Henry (2014), and this newly proposed dual-motivation system theory, some basic principles can be suggested to ensure harmony between the two subsystems of L2 and L3 motivation within this dual system and alleviate potential detriments on one another.
Jessner (2008) provides four areas of recommendations for teaching L2 and L3 that may help generate harmonious L2-L3 motivational systems. Firstly, teachers must appreciate the fact that L3 learners do not start from scratch and should draw students' attention to the potential advantages of prior L2 learning experiences. Secondly, students should be encouraged to look for similarities between all NNLs, and teachers should provide guidance for developing approaches aiming at active cross-referencing between the L3 and other NNLs to identify similarities. Thirdly, teaching across languages should be employed, such as making use of L2 English usage as a didactic tool for the teaching of German L3. Finally, strategy training should be encouraged to transfer concrete strategies into instructed L3 learning.
Henry (2014) further proposes how the two motivational forces, i.e., L2 and L3 motivation, that are conceptualized as a dual-motivation system, could be important for pedagogical development. He explains the importance of recognizing the challenge that an L2 may have a pernicious effect on L3 learning motivation when this L2 enjoys a higher social status or extensive societal presence. Therefore, L3 teachers should introduce the concept of possible selves to L3 learners and encourage them to develop an ideal L3 self as early as possible to mitigate the possible damage a prestigious or pragmatically more important L2 would induce on L3 motivation.
In connection with this, better harmonizing L2 and L3 motivations from the dual-motivation system perspective is essential. When learners develop a stronger motivation in learning a self-chosen L3 and make unfavorable comparisons with their existing L2 learning, L2 teachers can guide learners to transfer L3 learning motivation into L2 learning. Positive learning experience in an additional language can trigger better motivation for learning another, as argued by Bonnet et al. (2018) and Busse et al. (2020). This argument is in line with the proposed framework that the L2 and L3 motivations can work for some learners as "connected, supportive growers" in CDST terms.
In summary, the pedagogical implications of the dual-motivation system involve balancing the learning motivations among all additional languages, including L2(s) and the newly added L3, to reach a complex yet optimal state. Teachers should be aware of how cross-referencing can result in negative and motivationally damaging appraisals of the L3 self-concept concerning a more "vital and phenomenologically robust L2 self-concept." Furthermore, L3 teachers should introduce the concept of possible selves to L3 learners and encourage them to develop an ideal L3 self as early as possible. Finally, L2 teachers can guide learners to transfer L3 learning motivation into L2 learning, triggered by positive learning experiences in an additional language.
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/languages8010069