Application of Essential Oils and Terpenoid-Rich Extracts: History
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Contributor:
Branislav Šojić
,
Sanja Milošević
,
Danica Savanović
,
Zoran Zeković
,
Vladimir Tomović
,
Branimir Pavlić

Using food additives (e.g., preservatives, antioxidants) is one of the main methods for preserving meat and meat product quality (edible, sensory, and technological) during processing and storage. Conversely, they show negative health implications, so meat technology scientists are focusing on finding alternatives for these compounds. Terpenoid-rich extracts, including essential oils (EOs), are remarkable since they are generally marked as GRAS (generally recognized as safe) and have a wide ranging acceptance from consumers. EOs obtained by conventional or non-conventional methods possess different preservative potentials. 

  • terpenoids
  • natural antioxidants
  • antimicrobial agents

1. Introduction

During the 21st century, meat production and processing have steadily enlarged worldwide [1]. According to FAO expectations, in 2030, meat production will range to nearly 373 million tons [2]. Generally, meat (pork, poultry, and beef) is marked as one of the main constituents of human diets owing to its high percentage of easily digestible proteins, vitamins, and vital minerals (iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and zinc) [1][3]. Fresh meat obtained after slaughtering animals (e.g., pigs, poultry, and cows) is treated at low temperatures under cooling or freezing conditions, and then packed in a vacuum or modified atmosphere without the addition of any synthetic preservatives [4]. On the contrary, meat products are obtained through a different method of processing (e.g., grinding, fermentation, smoking, drying, and heating) with the addition of various ingredients (e.g., salts, spices, emulsifiers, and preservatives) [4].
Fresh meat and processed meat products (raw, dry, and heat-treated meat products) contain a relatively high percentage of water, proteins, and lipids; therefore, they are easily prone to microbiological and chemical degradation, which leads to a loss of nutritive, sensory, and technological quality [5][6][7].
Oxidative reactions (lipid and protein oxidation) are the fundamental non-microbiological causes of quality deterioration in animal tissues, including meat and processed meat products [4][8][9], which leads to rancidity, discoloration, a decline in shelf-life and gathering of possibly toxic compounds that are risky to the health of customers [4][10]. Lipids, including triacylglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols, broadly range in both the intra- and extracellular space of meat. Phospholipids, as the main constituents of muscle cell membranes, comprise the highest percentage of unsaturated fatty acids; hence, they are the most susceptible to oxidation in comparison to other lipids [8][11]. Peroxides are the primary products formed during the free-step radical chain reactions of lipid oxidation. In the next phase, peroxides are subjected to the secondary processes of lipid oxidation, which leads to the formation of short-chain organic compounds such as aldehydes, ketones, and organic acids [9][12][13]. The intensity of lipid oxidation depends on countless causes, including pro-oxidant metal ions, temperature, air (oxygen), light, pH, degree of unsaturation, etc. [9]. Protein oxidation is one of the most advanced methods in meat quality assessment [4][13]. This process is contingent on the intensity of lipid oxidation. It is well known that protein and its derivates (free amino acids, peptides, and dipeptides) can react with free radicals formed during lipid oxidation [13][14]. Among the amino acids, the most predisposed to oxidative reactions are tyrosine, cysteine, histidine, phenylalanine, proline, methionine, lysine, arginine, and tryptophan. Protein oxidation causes the modification of the amino acid side chains generating the covalent intermolecular cross-linked protein and protein aggregation [14]. Moreover, protein modifications in muscle tissue, as an outcome of denaturation and proteolysis, induce loss of the sensory (color, flavor, and texture) and physico-chemical qualities of meat and processed meat products (reduction of proteolytic activity, loss of water-holding capacity, and decrease in biological functionality) [8][15][16].
Initial hygiene during the slaughtering process and the efficiency of applied processed techniques (e.g., salting, drying, and heating) are the leading causes of microbiological contamination in meat processing. Different types of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, and molds) can cause spoilage of meat and processed meat products and subsequently, various foodborne intoxications [17][18][19]. Spoilage bacteria (e.g., Acinetobacter, Moraxella, Lactobacillus spp., Pseudomonas, Proteus spp., and Leuconostoc spp.) are the most dominant in meat and processed meat products. These bacteria strains do not cause severe disease. However, in high concentrations, they affect degradation of the main constituents of meat (lipids and proteins) and finally affect the formation of disagreeable quality features (discoloration, slime and gas production, off-odors, and off-flavors) [18]. The degree of meat spoilage is the consequence of numerous factors such as initial hygiene, the temperature during different stages of processing, as well as the pH of meat and processed meat products [18]. Mataragas et al. [20] observed that pathogenic bacteria (e.g., Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter jejuni, and Clostridium spp.) are principally responsible for foodborne diseases and food poisoning, but do not have a significant effect on sensory characteristics (e.g., color, flavor, and texture) of meat and processed meat products.
Recently, foodborne illnesses have been pointed out as crucial for controlling public health and economic development worldwide. Therefore, the microbiological deterioration of meat and meat products can be considered one of the main limitations in the modern meat industry [18]. Generally, delay of oxidative reactions and controlling bacterial growth are significant factors in quality preservation and improving the shelf-life of meat and processed meat products [10][13]. Using food additives is one of the critical methodologies for preserving the quality and prolonging the shelf-life of processed meat products [10]. The most abundant food additives in the modern meat industry are nitrites, which possess a strong antimicrobial and antioxidative potential. Conversely, these food additives from the subgroup of preservatives are marked as unhealthy [21].
Therefore, numerous investigations have been oriented toward finding natural alternatives for synthetic preservatives (e.g., nitrites) [21][22][23][24]. According to the high content of terpenoids (e.g., monoterpene hydrocarbons and phenolic terpenoids) with strong bioactive potential, essential oils (EOs) were be used as potential natural preservatives in different types of fresh meat and processed meat products. Furthermore, it is essential to apply adequate extraction procedures and optimize the process in order to obtain extracts or essential oils in high yield and quality in terms of terpenoid content.

2. Bioactive Potential of EOs and Terpenoid-Rich Extracts

Plants such as rosemary, sage, thyme, oregano, basil, red pepper, lavender, peppermint, coriander, and clove have been used for a long time throughout history in food preparation and traditional medicine due to their specific flavors and biological activity. These plants are well known for their various effects—diuretic, antiseptic, analgesic, and antiallergenic. However, the most important effects that these plants have are antioxidant and antimicrobial effects [25]. In addition to phenolic compounds, which are well known for their antioxidant activity, a lot of attention has lately been given to EOs as contributors to preventing oxidative stress. Considering that oxidative activity cannot be prevented during the storage and processing of products in the food industry, adding antioxidants is required in order to prolong shelf life [26].
The antioxidative process starts with compounds that donate their hydrogen atom to trigger more stable radicals. After lipid oxidation as a three-phase process, free radicals which initiate a radical chain reaction are generated [27]. Antioxidants are necessary in order to prevent two free radicals from collision. This is achieved by donating a hydrogen atom. These compounds exert their activity through different mechanisms thanks to their ability to act as free radicals’ scavengers, electron donors, donors of H-atoms, regulators of enzyme activity, chelators of metal ions, and inhibitors of pro-oxidative enzymes [28]. Based on the mechanism used for preventing oxidation, there are two types of antioxidants. Preventive antioxidants include enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and catalase, which remove initially formed radical species. A second group of antioxidants are chain-breaking antioxidants which react with peroxyl radicals and in such a way prevent propagation in lipid oxidation [29].
Furthermore, when observing antioxidative effects at the cell level, organelles responsible for cell breathing, mitochondria, are the main sources of ROS in a organism. As a result of oxidative stress, the imbalance between generating ROS, and the antioxidative defense mechanism, various diseases are triggered in the human body [30]. Cells have their own mechanisms to avoid any kind of negative environmental stimuli. Regulating mitochondrial biogenesis is important because of the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) intracellular transfer of energy and cellular metabolism regulation [31]. Phenols are exogenous antioxidants that, due to their physicochemical characteristics, have a pivotal role in regulating intracellular pathways of mitochondrial biogenesis. Regulation involves removing damaged mitochondria and generating new mitochondria. The goal is to achieve mitochondrial homeostasis [31]. By activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator- (PGC-), which oversees mitochondrial biogenesis, phenolic compounds have the ability to generate new mitochondria [32]. Due to the characteristics of phenolic compounds, it is possible to add antioxidant-rich extract to food products. Foods enriched with these antioxidative compounds have the ability to prevent diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases [33]. For example, EOs from mint manifest antioxidative activity through phenolic acids, flavonoids, and unsaturated cyclic oxygenated terpenes [34]. Menthol and menthone, which are the main components of mint’s EOs, contain the hydroxyl radical (-OH) group. As a result, they conduct significant radical scavenging activity against hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide radicals. Based on the position of the alkyl group present in thymol and carvacrol, these compounds have the ability to neutralize free radicals [35]. Due to a similar phenolic structure, linalool, 1,8-cineole, geranial, neral, and citronellal contribute to the antioxidant properties of EOs.
It is well known that oxidative reactions (lipid and protein oxidation) in muscle tissues are the main limitation factors regarding the quality and shelf-life of meat and processed meat products. Namely, these oxidative reactions begin at the time of slaughter, when blood flow is interrupted and the metabolic processes are blocked [36]. Lipid oxidation is a complex process in which unsaturated fatty acids react with molecular oxygen via a free radical chain forming peroxides. The first auto-oxidation is followed by a series of secondary reactions, which lead to lipid degradation and the development of oxidative rancidity products [36]. Similarly to lipid oxidation, the protein oxidation process begins with the initiation stage of free radical formation and hydroperoxide generation before transitioning to the propagation stage of radical proliferation and transfer and concluding with the termination stage, which is summarized as the formation of non-reactive species. Free radicals are highly reactive and can directly react with protein molecules through hydrogen abstraction, coupling, oxygenation, and cleavage [14].
The intensity of lipid and protein oxidation in fresh meat depends on many other factors, such as the lipid and protein contents, fatty acid profile of muscle and fatty tissues, animal diet and lifestyle, and cooling conditions. The main factors affecting oxidative changes in processed meat products are the processing methods, storage conditions, types of ingredients, and presence and concentrations of pro- or antioxidants [36].
In addition to the antioxidant role, the components of EOs also exhibit strong antimicrobial activity [37]. Antimicrobial effects depend on the chemical composition of the oils and its main components. Bioactive compounds from EOs (thymol, carvacrol, linalool, and menthol) manifest their antimicrobial activities due to the presence of an aromatic structure with highly active functional groups [18].
The cell membrane of bacteria is the main barrier that antimicrobial agents must overcome in order to manifest their effects. Due to the fact that the structure of the cell membrane differs in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, the mechanisms of action of antimicrobial agents are different. The advantages of lipophilic components from EOs are that they pass through the lipid membrane of Gram-positive bacteria, which consists of a peptidoglycan layer [38]. After passing through the membrane, they can cause various effects such as cell wall destruction, membrane protein damage, increasing permeability, cytoplasm coagulation, reduction of proton motive force, and reduction of the intracellular ATP pool [39]. These mechanisms lead to lysis and cell death [40]. Gram-negative bacteria possess more complex outer membranes rich in lipopolysaccharide, which is the main reason why essential oils are more susceptible to Gram-positive bacteria [37].
The highest antimicrobial effects are found in phenolic compounds, among them monoterpenes (carvacrol, eugenol, and thymol) followed by aldehydes and ketones (β-myrcene, α-thujone, geranyl acetate), while the lowest effects are found in alcohols and hydrocarbons [41]. By decreasing pH value, carvacrol affects the loss of ATP [42]. Eugenol from O. basilicum can inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis, which is a specific component of the cell wall membrane. In this way, eugenol destroys the integrity of the cell membrane [41]. Eucalyptol which is present in rosemary, sage, and mint shows high antimicrobial activities against Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes [43]. Thymol has the ability to disintegrate the outer membrane of bacteria and in that way increase permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane to ATP. Sage EOs have antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria mainly due to the presence of camphor, β-thujone, α-thujone, eucalyptol, viridiflorol, and trans-cariophyllene [26]. Mint EOs with antimicrobial effects can also be used against microorganisms [34]. EOs isolated from mint contain menthol as the dominant compound, which increases permeability of bacteria cell membranes. Menthone, cis-caran, and eucalyptol have the same antimicrobial mechanism [44]. From the literature, mint EOs inhibited growth of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus [45]. By using the whole oils instead of individual components, better antimicrobial activity can be achieved due to the synergistic action among them. For example, thymol in synergy with carvacrol, p-cymene, and γ-terpineol are able to modify the permeability of the bacterial cell membrane [46].
There are many positive sides when applying EOs in the food industry. EOs extracted from plants have proven to be safer, achieve better tolerance in the human body, and are cost-effective. Additionally, these EOs are lower in toxicity, have fewer side effects, and demonstrate better biodegradability and lower resistance [35].

3. Terpenoid-Rich Extracts as Natural Preservatives in Fresh Meat and Processed Meat Products

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is one of the most dominant flavoring agents in meat processing [47]. With a relatively high percentage of terpenoids (limonene, α- and β-pinene, and caryophyllene), EOs isolated from black pepper (BPEO) display a strong antioxidative effect, as well as a preservative effect against a broad spectrum of microorganisms [47]. BPEO was added as a natural preservative in fresh pork loin at concentrations from 0 to 0.5%. All batches were stored at 4 °C for 9 days [47].
This showed that BPEO delayed lipid oxidation and reduced the growth of Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas spp. in fresh pork meat. In the study by Bi et al. [48], the influence of coating with BPEO (0.05 and 0.1%) on the lipid oxidation and sensory quality (aroma) of Jinhua ham (the dry-cured meat product) was examined. The authors suggested that using BPEO has a strong potential to suppress lipid oxidation and enhance the sensory acceptability of Jinhua ham during long-term storage (4 months at room temperature). Generally, the results suggest that BPEO could be used as a natural antioxidant in dry-cured meat products.
The essential oil isolated from caraway (Carum carvi L.)—CEO is widely used as a bioactive component in pharmaceutical processing [49]. In vivo studies confirmed the preservative potential of CEO, and it was recommended as a potential preservative and quality enhancer in different foodstuffs. The strong biopotential of CEO can be related to a high percentage of terpene, limonene, and ketone carvone [49]. A strong antimicrobial potential against various fungal and bacterial species were determined by Hromiš et al. [50] and Kocić-Tanackov et al. [51]. Krkić et al. [49] investigated the influence of the coating chitosan-biopolymer film enriched with CEO on the quality and shelf-life of traditional fermented sausage produced in Serbia (Petrovská klobása). This product was stored. The results of the study mentioned above suggested that a chitosan-caraway coating can contribute to delaying lipid oxidation and to preserving the required sensory attributes (odor and taste) of Petrovská klobása during a long storage period (for 5 months at 10 °C). Šojić et al. [52] investigated the antioxidant effect of CEO (1, 2 and 5 µL/g) in cooked pork sausages. The addition of CEO (all three concentrations) significantly reduced TBARS values compared to the control. Generally, the obtained results show that CEO can be used as a natural preservative agent in dry and heat-treated meat products.
EO isolated from Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt. (CTNEO) possesses a strong preservative potential in the food industry according to its high content of phenolic acids and flavonoids [53]. CTNEO was used in order to improve the quality and shelf-life of fermented sausages produced with the usage of horse meat. Namely, the group of scientists [53] applied CTNEO and its microcapsules (CTNEOM) in the basic formulation of this meat product. Both preservative types were added at 0.312%, corresponding to CTNEO’s minimally inhibitory concentration (MIC) towards Morganella morganii (the leading microorganism responsible for biogenic amines-formation) and Enterococcus faecalis.
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is an ancient aromatic herb with significant nutritional and medicinal properties. Because of the synergistic effect among terpenoid compounds (linalool, limonene, camphor, and geraniol), essential oil from coriander (COEO) is categorized as a strong preservative and flavoring agent in food and biotechnology [54].
Garlic (Allium sativum), an ancient spice and aromatic plant from Alliaceae family, is widespread worldwide. Fresh bulbs and the essential oil of garlic (GEO) possess strong antimicrobial attributes; hence, they are widespread in foodstuffs, especially in meat processing [55]. The most dominant compounds of GEO are sulfuric-terpenoids, particularly allicin, which is responsible for most of the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity and flavor. The preservative effects of different antimicrobials (GEO, allyl isothiocyanate, and nisin) on the shelf-life of fresh sausages previously inoculated with E. coli O157:H7 were assessed by Araújo et al. [56]. The authors suggested that the combinations of these antimicrobials effectively reduced the growth of E. coli and lactic acid bacteria, and maintained the red color of fresh sausages during storage (for 20 days at 6 °C). Najjaa et al. [57] examined the influence of microencapsulated GEO in preserving minced beef meat. The results exhibited that microencapsulated GEO at a concentration of 20% efficiently reduced the following foodborne pathogenic bacteria: Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and the sulfite-reducing anaerobes. In another study, Esmaeili et al. [55] examined the effect of chitosan and whey protein film impregnated with GEO on the shelf-life of cooked beef sausages kept in refrigeration conditions for 50 days.
Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and its EO (SEO) have a long tradition in medicine and food preparation as flavoring agents. SEO contains broad spectrum of bioactive compounds, including monoterpene ketones (e.g., α-thujone, β-thujone, and camphor) and diterpene polyphenols (e.g., epirosmanol, carnosol, and carnosic acid) with significant preservative potential [43][58]. SEO and sage extracts (water and ethanol) were used as potential natural preservatives in low-pressure mechanically separated meat (MSM) processing during frozen storage (for 9 months at −18 °C) [59]. The quality and shelf-life of MSM samples were examined based on microbiological analyses and TBARS test (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances).
In the case of meat products, Šojić et al. [43] assessed the effect of SEO and sage extract (SE) obtained using SFE with carbon-dioxide at concentrations of 0.050, 0.075, and 0.100 µL/g on the quality (chemical, microbiological, and sensory) of fresh pork sausages. Extracts were isolated from by-products of the filter-tea industry in Serbia. This presented that SEO and SE reduced the products of lipid oxidation and microbiological growth in fresh pork sausages during cold storage (for 8 days at 3 ± 1 °C). Generally, compared with conventional SEO, SE allowed better antimicrobial potential and sensory acceptability in fresh pork sausages, proposing the benefit of the novel SFE technique. Additionally, SEO usage at deficient concentrations (0.4 and 0.6 μL/g) and SE (0.4, 0.6 and 1 μL/g) can prevent the spread of E. coli and extend the shelf-life of ground pork meat up to 8 days at cold storage (4 °C) [60]. Hence, SEO, and particularly SE, can be used as effective natural preservatives in fresh sausages.
Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and its EO (OEO) have been revealed to contain terpenoid compounds (carvacrol and thymol) with strong preservative effects against microbiological growth and oxidative reactions in meat and meat products [61]. OEO has been marked as one of the most potent EOs. Hence, Shange et al. [61] applied OEO at 1% (v/v) in black wildebeest meat (biceps femoris) in order to determine its preservative effect during refrigeration storage. This EO powerfully reduced lipid oxidation (expressed by malondialdehyde) and microbiological growth (total viable counts, lactic acid bacteria, and coliform counts) in black wildebeest meat. Also, Schirmer and Langsrud [62] determined that OEO inhibited Salmonella in fresh pork meat.
Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the most famous medicinal and aromatic plants from the Lamiaceae family. Basil essential oil (BEO) can be used as a natural additive in meat and processed meat products [51][63][64], because it contains high-potency terpenoids, included linalool and eugenol. In the research of Gaio et al. [63], the antibacterial activity of BEO (0.25–1.00 mg/g) in fermented sausages was examined. Gaio et al. [63] concluded that BEO efficiency reduces the growth of foodborne pathogenic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, during 30 days of storage at 22 °C.
Stojanović-Radić et al. [64] examined the influence of the addition of BEO on Salmonella Enteritidis growth and physico-chemical properties of fresh chicken meat during cold storage (for 3 days at 4 and 18 °C). Application of BEO reduced the population of S. Enteritidis, and decreased lipid oxidation (TBARS test), without a negative effect on the odor and flavor of the treated chicken meat. Recently, Kocić-Tanackov et al. [51] evaluated the antifungal effect of BEO and CEO against Penicillium carneum FEMK2 and P. polonicum FEMK5, isolated from Serbian fermented sausages, in vitro and in vivo. The authors suggested that CEO presented a better antifungal effect in vitro than BEO. Also, the application of EOs on the surface of Serbian fermented sausages artificially inoculated with conidia of P. carneum and P. polonicum reduced molds during the storage period. Thus, the obtained results suggest that BEO and CEO can be used as effective antifungal substances to protect fermented sausages.
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) and its EO (TEO) comprise many bioactive compounds, including carvacrol and thymol, with a strong preservative effect. The effect of TEO addition on microbiological growth and biogenic amines formation in fermented sausages of horse meat was evaluated by Huang et al. [65]. The authors determined that TEO efficiently reduced Enterobacteriaceae counts and biogenic amines formation in this type of meat product.
Winter savory (Satureja montana L.) and its EO (WSEO) comprise a strong antioxidative and antimicrobial agent from the group of phenolic terpenoids, e.g., thymol and carvacrol. Hence, they are widespread in the food and pharmaceutical industries [66]. De Oliveira et al. [67] tested the influence of WSEO supplementation (7.80, 15.60 and 31.25 μL/g) on the color, microbiological growth, and oxidative status (TBARS test) of mortadella cooked pork sausages during storage (for 30 days at 25 °C). Mortadella was manufactured with three sodium nitrite levels (0, 100, and 200 mg/kg). De Oliveira et al. [46] observed that the sausage manufactured with 100 mg/kg of nitrite and without WSEO had a similar TBARS value to the sausages manufactured without sodium nitrite and with 15.60 and 31.25 μL/g of WSEO. This result suggested that WSEO could be a valuable alternative to sodium nitrite in heat-treated meat products. Also, de Oliveira et al. [67] showed that WSEO, in combination with sodium nitrite (100 mg/kg), declined the growth of Clostridium perfringens type A. Moreover, Šojić et al. [66] investigated the influence of WSEO and winter savory extracts obtained by SFE (0.075 and 0.150 µL/g) on the shelf-life of fresh pork sausages stored at 3 ± 1 °C for 8 days. Both extracts reduced the formation of malondyaldehide (TBARS test) and microbiological growth in the final product. It should be underlined that the extract obtained using SFE had a more potent antioxidant and antimicrobial potential than WSEO, undoubtedly due to a higher level of coextracted non-volatile lipids. It has been recognized that terpenoid-rich extracts of winter savory could be used as natural preservatives in processed meat products. Similarly, Jokanović et al. [68] determined a strong protective (lipid and protein oxidation) effect of WSEO in precooked pork chops. WSEO were obtained using hydrodistillation and SFE. The higher antioxidative potential was determined in the sample produced with WSEO obtained using SFE. Hence, the optimization of process extraction is essential to maximize the antioxidant activity.
In order to suppress oxidative reactions in meat and processed meat products, EOs and terpenoid-rich extracts could be used as natural antioxidants. Generally, the antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of EOs and terpenoid-rich extracts in meat and processed meat products depend on their concentrations, chemical profile, as well as quality characteristics of meat (e.g., pH, temperature, moisture, fat, and protein contents) and procedures during the meat processing (e.g., grinding, mixing, fermentation, drying, and heating) [37]. EOs, tocopherols, flavonoids, and phenolic acids have vigorous H•-donating activity or high radicals-absorbance capacity [36]. Some phenolics prevent free radical generation and the formation of reactive oxygen species, while others scavenge free radicals and chelate pro-oxidants (transition metal) in meat and processed meat products [69]. The antioxidant potential of these natural compounds (phenolics) depends on their structure and the distribution of functional groups in these structures. Also, phenolic diterpenes, one of the main bioactive compounds in EOs, act as iron chelators and eliminate peroxyl radicals, especially in meat products with a higher fat content [36]. The most dominant terpenoids of EOs and terpenoid-rich extracts are carvacrol, thymol, linalool, limonene, camphor, ɑ-thujone, etc. [37]. Carvacrol and thymol were registered as the most dominant terpenoid compounds of oregano, thyme, and winter savory extracts, while linalool was the most dominant terpenoid of coriander and basil extracts. These terpenoids efficiently reduce lipid oxidation in meat products by scavenging free radicals and inhibiting lipid peroxidation ability [46].
In addition, carvacrol and thymol are marked as terpenoid phenols with significant antimicrobial potential. The high content of carvacrol and thymol causes the increased permeability of cell membranes. It simultaneously causes a reduction in pH gradient across the cytoplasm membrane, as well as the inhibition of ATP synthesis, and finally, the death of bacterial cells [3]. Concerning linalool, since it is the major component of coriander and basil extracts, its bactericidal action could be explained by the fact that this compound may act on the bacteria’s cell wall [70]. The strong protective effect of black pepper and caraway extracts could be related to the presence of limonene. Namely, Gupta et al. [71] observed that exponentially growing E. coli cells were inactivated by limonene at the concentration of 2000 μL/L. The mechanism of bacterial inactivation was observed to be the Fenton-mediated hydroxyl radical formation which leads to the oxidative DNA damage of the bacterial cell.
Moreover, interactions between the different terpenoids enable the preservative effect of EOs and terpenoid-rich extracts. The chemical composition of meat and meat products also affects the preservative effect of EOs and terpenoid-rich extracts. High contents of lipids and proteins in meat or meat products protect the bacteria strains from the action of the EO in some way. The susceptibility of bacteria to the preservative effect of EOs and terpenoid-rich extracts also appears to increase with a decrease in the pH of the food, the storage temperature, and the amount of oxygen within the packaging [37].
Although EOs and terpenoid-rich extracts possess robust preservative effects, there are a few limitations regarding the application of these natural extracts in meat and meat products. Firstly, it is well known that some medicinal and aromatic plants at high concentrations could be toxic to humans. For example, thujones above 0.5 mg/kg affect acute toxicity. Hence, Šojić et al. [43][66] limited the usage of sage EOs and sage SFE extracts to below 0.15 µL/g in fresh sausages. Likewise, the high concentrations of natural extracts, mainly terpenoid-rich extracts, provide undesirable sensory characteristics in the final products. Hence, it is crucial to find a compromise between effective doses of natural extracts, including EOs and terpenoid-rich extracts, and the safety and sensory acceptability of the flavored food. A study by Kahraman et al. [72] reported that concentrations of rosemary EO higher than 0.2% were not acceptable because of the sensory properties they imparted to the poultry meat. Moreover, Šojić et al. [43] determined a more robust limit for sensory acceptability of EOs extracts isolated from sage and winter savory (≤0.150 µL/g).
Finally, the economic implication of using EOs and terpenoid-rich extracts should also be considered [73]. Namely, due to the high cost of investment and labor, terpenoid-rich extracts obtained using SFE are limited for application in the food sector. However, novel investigations suggested that this technique provides a higher yield of terpenoid-rich extracts with strong preservative effects in a relatively small concentration in meat processing [43][66]. Also, several studies confirmed that terpenoid-rich extracts obtained using SFE possess a stronger preservative effect and better flavoring effects than EOs obtained using conventional HD technique [43][66][68][74].

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules28052293

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