Solar Thermal Systems: History
View Latest Version
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Contributor:
Abdul Ghani Olabi
,
Nabila Shehata
,
Hussein M. Maghrabie
,
Lobna A. Heikal
,
Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem
,
Shek Mohammod Atiqure Rahman
,
Sheikh Khaleduzzaman Shah
,
Enas Taha Sayed

The use of solar thermal systems (STSs) has reached a significant edge. The increasing research on developing an alternative power supply for limiting fossil fuel usage and climate change are the driving forces of STSs. STSs’ applications, including PV/T or “photovoltaic/thermal” systems, zero-energy buildings, greenhouse solar thermal applications, solar thermal for pumping water, solar thermal refrigerators, solar chimneys, water desalination, and solar collectors, along with the benefits and challenges of these applications.

  • solar thermal systems
  • renewable energy
  • climate change

1. Introduction

Recently, energy, environment, and economic development have been exceedingly intertwined. Appropriately utilising available energy requires carefully managing employed technologies and assessing social impacts. The sustainable development of countries’ economic growth mainly depends on good planning and the responsible consumption of fossil fuels and renewable energy resources, i.e., solar, hydro, biomass, and wind energy. Solar energy is available everywhere, even in remote locations, making it an adequate substitute for fossil fuels. The sun dissipates a massive quantity of radiation energy to its surroundings by about 174*1015 W at the layer of the upper atmosphere of Earth. Almost 51% of the total incoming solar energy reaches the land and oceans. Solar energy from the sun can be categorised as light or photons and heat with electromagnetic waves. Fundamentally, the sun is the source of all renewable energy sources, as presented in Figure 1.
Energies 15 09501 g001
Figure 1. Solar radiation as the main source of renewable energies on Earth.
Demand for cleaner energy sources has grown in recent decades. Most countries have drawn up long-term plans based on renewable sources. Governments worldwide are beginning to use renewable energy resources and reduce their reliance on conventional fossil fuels [1][2]. In 2021, renewable energy technologies garnered 70% of all energy investment, yet worldwide CO2 emissions rose by 1.5 billion tonnes [3][4]. The European Union (EU2030)’s Framework for Climate and Energy states that emissions must be reduced, with a binding target of at least 40% below 1990 levels before 2030 [5]. Various renewable energy technologies, primarily solar ones, can be used to meet these objectives. Solar devices, in particular photovoltaic (PV) panels [6], solar thermal collectors [5], or photovoltaic/thermal (PVT) collectors [6], are easily integrated into a variety of industries. Future predictions indicate that solar energy will soon surpass fossil fuels. Due to the development of the economy and industry, solar energy generation is anticipated to reach 48% by 2050 [7][8]. Solar energy is used for power generation using PV systems [9][10], heating air with solar air heaters [11][12], dry agricultural products using solar air dryers [12][13], providing drinking water using solar-powered desalination systems [14][15], cooking food using solar cookers [16], etc. Several types of research have been conducted to improve the performance of solar systems. Phase change material (PCM) and nano-enhanced PCMs [17][18], thermoelectric generators [19][20], nano-enhanced coatings [21], and nanofluids [22][23] are different methods for improving the performance of solar systems. The particular approaches employed are primarily determined by the unique features of the solar system and the opportunities that are available for improving performance or utilising additional system availability to produce other forms of energy. For instance, PCMs could be employed in solar thermal systems (STSs) to increase the module’s exit temperature [24]. Thermal or PVT collectors utilise nanofluids for a faster rate of heat transfer [25], and thermoelectric generators can be utilised to co-generate electricity and heat/cold from desalination units or solar PV [26].
Modelling and simulation are effective tools for deciding the best operating conditions of various processes, such as tracking the maximum power point of grid-connected solar PV panels [27][28]. Artificial intelligence is an attractive methodology with a lower limitation than physical and mathematical modelling [29]. Artificial intelligence is effectively used to improve the efficiency and performance of several processes [30][31], including hybrid renewable energy sources [32][33]. Artificial intelligence plays an important role in increasing STSs’ utilisation, including increasing their overall efficiency, cost minimisation, safety enhancement, scenarios to minimise environmental impacts, developing smart systems, optimising operations, and developing more accurate models of the different systems [8].
Recent advances in solar thermal systems (STSs) undoubtedly have a significant role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the UN in 2015 to be achieved in 2030. In addition to core contributions to SDG 7, which focuses on access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all, and SDG 13, on urgent action to combat climate change, STSs can also make critical contributions to the other 15 SDGs, including helping to alleviate poverty, fight hunger, increase access to healthcare, education, and clean water, and protecting life on land and in water. It is essential to analyse the role of STSs in achieving the 17 SDGs.

2. STSs or “Solar Thermal Systems”

Due to growing energy consumption, on the one hand, and the negative environmental effect of different fossil fuels, countries around the world are depending on alternative energy resources as a feasible and suitable choice in different applications, such as industry, agriculture, and domestic usage [34]. Solar energy is one of the cleanest sources of alternative energy. The study of the applications of solar systems in diverse areas of engineering technology is introduced to emphasise the necessity of using solar energy, with a special focus on thermal sources whenever possible, such as zero-energy buildings, greenhouse solar thermal applications, solar thermal energy for pumping water, solar thermal refrigerators, solar chimneys, water desalination, solar collectors, photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) systems, etc.

2.1. Zero-Energy Buildings

Buildings considerably influence environmental issues, as they consume nearly one-third of the world’s energy [35]. The main challenge that must be comprehensively evaluated is energy consumption from an economic perspective, considering its influence on the environment. Zero-energy structure principles were first reported in 1976, and an investigation of ZEB or “zero-energy building” started around 2000 [36][37]. Among countries, communities, and regions, the criteria of ZEBs differ from one place to another [38]. The Sustainable Building Institute Europe listed ten challenges hindering the establishment of zero-energy structures from becoming relevant and realistic. ZEBs were first developed in Denmark, utilising solar energy for household applications in cold seasons. On the other hand, the BIPV or “building-integrated photovoltaic” system is a practical, promising, and innovative application to achieve green buildings, thus the term BIPVT or “building-integrated photovoltaic thermal” [39]. Photovoltaics are designed to be integrated with a building as an alternative to conventional constituents to supply electricity. Rapid advances have been achieved for enhancing the energy output of BIPVT designed for facades, rooftops, and windows. In addition, their thermal performance mechanisms, benefits, applications, barriers, and challenges have been introduced [9][40].

2.2. Greenhouse Solar Thermal Application

The use of greenhouse structures allows for the introduction of more favourable conditions, which are necessary for the rapid growth of crops at any time of the year. Solar energy is utilised to increase the yield of various agricultural products based on the greenhouse system, such as the drying of agricultural products and crop production [41]. Specifically, solar energy is utilised to increase the yield of agricultural products grown in greenhouses. A more comprehensive categorisation of solar thermal applications for greenhouses is presented in Figure 2. After the solar radiation has been absorbed by the plant being grown inside the greenhouse, it is then expelled into the air around it in the form of water vapour. This process occurs after the solar radiation has passed over the greenhouse cover. Radiation can be transferred to the air inside by the floor, or it can be transferred to the ground below by heat conduction [42]. Therefore, the ambient air in the greenhouse is heated, and then various thermal losses are induced via the various pores. There are a few parameters that have a significant impact on the system [43][44]. These include the plant area, plant mass, the area of an aquifer-coupled cavity flow heat exchanger system, and the flow rate of circulating air.
Energies 15 09501 g002
Figure 2. Broader classification of greenhouse solar thermal applications.

2.3. Solar Thermal for Pumping Water

Traditional diesel-powered pumps are commonly implemented for irrigation purposes. However, due to increased oil prices, harmful emissions due to burning, short lifetimes, and high maintenance costs have forced scientists to develop alternative routes. The solar-powered water pump has a number of advantages, for instance, reliability, being more economical, a low maintenance cost, dependence on renewable solar energy, a lack of noise, eco-friendliness, with no effect on environmental pollution, and a long life span compared to diesel-powered water pumps [45]. The generalised representation of a solar-powered water pump is shown in Figure 3. The solar power system is comprised of photovoltaic (PV) panels with or without an appropriate tracking system for improving electrical efficiency. The developed electrical energy is in DC, whereas the pump mostly requires AC, so an inverter is employed to convert the output energy to AC. A water pump or a water submersible pump is installed on the ground level [46][47].
Energies 15 09501 g003
Figure 3. Continuous flow of a solar-powered water pump system.

2.4. Solar Thermal Refrigerators

Recently, the development of refrigeration technologies has been pursued to reduce energy consumption and avoid peak electrical demand without sustaining the desired standard of comfort conditions [48]. Solar refrigeration technology has the advantage of avoiding the negative impacts of conventional refrigeration systems, and the requirements of the cold often coincide with solar radiation availability. As such, researchers’ primary area of attention has been the advancement of solar refrigeration technologies. In STSs, heat is actually used more frequently than solar energy’s electricity. The flat-plate and evacuated tube collector is the most prevalent kind of solar thermal system. Current systems for generating the refrigeration effect using solar thermal energy are essentially based on the sorption mechanism: the gas/solid adsorption process and the gas/liquid absorption process [49][50]. The mechanism of the adsorption process depends on the separation of a substance from one phase and its accumulation onto the surface of a solid surface; the process efficiency depends on the affinity of the adsorbent towards a specific adsorbate as well as the specific surface area of the adsorbent. In contrast to the absorption process, the working substance is transferred from a specific phase to another to form a solution [51]. A schematic diagram of a solar-powered absorption refrigeration system is presented in Figure 4.
Energies 15 09501 g004
Figure 4. A schematic diagram of a solar-powered absorption refrigeration system.

2.5. Solar Chimney

The use of energy in buildings covers many reasons, such as heating and cooling for a comfortable lifestyle, transportation in tall structures, lighting for many appliances, and other services. This is a crucial issue. As shown in Figure 5, the solar chimney (SC) is primarily an open-loop natural circulation system that can be utilised for electricity generation or natural ventilation (NV) [52]. The SC that produces electricity contains a sizable area of solar collectors that can efficiently absorb solar radiation [53][54]. The buoyant force that affects passive air circulation is produced in part by the height of the solar chimney. The solar chimney is additionally used in air-conditioning systems for passive cooling in natural ventilation systems of various buildings [55][56]. Natural ventilation relates to various SDGs or “Sustainable Development Goals” under the umbrella of the UN Agenda 2030, including climate action, thermal comfort, wellbeing, energy efficiency, and clean energy [57][58]. Conventional air-conditioning systems consume approximately 15% of the world’s total electricity [59]. Otherwise, solar and natural ventilation is recommended to provide cooling needs, with a 10% and 15% reduction in power and yearly usage, respectively [60].
Energies 15 09501 g005
Figure 5. Applications of solar chimney: (a) natural ventilation and (b) power generation, adapted from [61] with permission No. 5413141175242.

2.6. Water Desalination

Water desalination processes can be categorised as thermal, mainly depending on the phase change and the membrane processes associated with a single phase [61][62]. For water desalination based on thermal systems, the phase change of seawater is conducted via the applied thermal energy that can be supplied using renewable energy sources such as solar energy [63][64]. Solar energy is implemented in water desalination systems either for the thermal process to introduce the thermal energy necessary or for the membrane processes to produce the necessary electrical power [65].

2.7. Solar Collectors

Solar collectors gather solar thermal energy by absorbing it with working fluid for different applications. Solar collectors are mainly categorised into two kinds based on the concentration ratios, i.e., non-concentrating collectors and concentrating collectors [66]. Concentrated solar collectors (CSC) that have been under implantation for several decades are mainly a simple scheme that uses mirrors to redirect sunlight to focus and collect heat, which can, in turn, be used to heat, power, or generate electricity. Concentrating collectors include heliostat field collectors, linear Fresnel reflectors, parabolic dish collectors, parabolic trough collectors, etc. Concentrated solar collector technology can be employed for electrical power generation, water desalination, industrial heating, cooling, detoxification and disinfection, etc.

2.8. PV/T or “Photovoltaic/Thermal” System

PV or “photovoltaic” panels are the most commonly implemented green energy-generating electricity. The implementation of solar energy is a key parameter for supplying on-site renewable energy for PVs [67]. The PV cell converts the incident solar energy into electrical energy. Diverse technologies using different applications of solar cells constitute the practical area of photovoltaics. The critical factors affecting the performance features of photovoltaic panels are well-established and well-studied [68]. The electrical performance of PV modules relies mainly on the temperature of the PV modules. Reducing the temperature enhances the electrical performance of the PV module. Additionally, to improve the efficiency of the PV, the thermal energy generated in the PV should be collected using a cooling system, such as either water or air, and is known as a PV/T or “photovoltaic thermal” system. The heat removal from PV panels ensures higher electrical productivity, in addition to the thermal energy collected from the modules that can be utilised in adsorption cooling systems and domestic hot water production [69][70]. It is worth mentioning here that the recent progress in PV technology has resulted in decreasing the deterioration of the PV [71][72], which has gradually improved the economics of PV or PVT systems.

2.9. Other Applications of Solar Systems

The thermal energy needed to derive water desalination systems can be achieved via solar energy with the aid of solar ponds or solar collectors. Solar collectors, the main components of solar water desalination systems, absorb the incoming solar irradiation and directly convert it into thermal energy. Recently, nanofluids have been thermally, environmentally, and economically evaluated based on sustainable methodologies to assess their benefits in STSs. Various nanofluids can considerably improve the base fluid’s thermophysical properties, enhancing the heat transfer efficiency of thermal processes. Simple and hybrid nanofluids are employed in STSs, such as parabolic trough collectors and solar collectors [73], water-heating systems [74], water desalination [15][75], evacuated tubes [76], and photovoltaic/thermal (PVT) systems [77], focusing on the life cycle methodology [78].

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/en15249501

References

  1. Kannan, N.; Vakeesan, D. Solar energy for future world: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 62, 1092–1105.
  2. Watts, R.G. Engineering Response to Climate Change; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2013.
  3. Calise, F.; D’Accadia, M.D.; Vicidomini, M. Integrated Solar Thermal Systems. Energies 2022, 15, 3831.
  4. Khan, I.; Hou, F.; Zakari, A.; Tawiah, V.K. The dynamic links among energy transitions, energy consumption, and sustainable economic growth: A novel framework for IEA countries. Energy 2021, 222, 119935.
  5. Musiał, W.; Zioło, M.; Luty, L.; Musiał, K. Energy Policy of European Union Member States in the Context of Renewable Energy Sources Development. Energies 2021, 14, 2864.
  6. Calise, F.; Cappiello, F.L.; Cimmino, L.; D’Accadia, M.D.; Vicidomini, M. Dynamic Simulation and Thermoeconomic Analysis of a Hybrid Renewable System Based on PV and Fuel Cell Coupled with Hydrogen Storage. Energies 2021, 14, 7657.
  7. Martín, M. Challenges and opportunities of Solar thermal energy towards a sustainable chemical industry. Comput. Chem. Eng. 2022, 165, 107926.
  8. Hannan, M.; Al-Shetwi, A.Q.; Ker, P.J.; Begum, R.; Mansor, M.; Rahman, S.; Dong, Z.; Tiong, S.; Mahlia, T.I.; Muttaqi, K. Impact of renewable energy utilization and artificial intelligence in achieving sustainable development goals. Energy Rep. 2021, 7, 5359–5373.
  9. Maghrabie, H.M.; Elsaid, K.; Sayed, E.T.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Wilberforce, T.; Olabi, A. Building-integrated photovoltaic/thermal (BIPVT) systems: Applications and challenges. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2021, 45, 101151.
  10. Alami, A.H.; Rabaia, M.K.H.; Sayed, E.T.; Ramadan, M.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Alasad, S.; Olabi, A.-G. Management of potential challenges of PV technology proliferation. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2021, 51, 101942.
  11. Al-Kayiem, H.H.; Gitan, A.A. Flow uniformity assessment in a multi-chamber cabinet of a hybrid solar dryer. Sol. Energy 2021, 224, 823–832.
  12. Abdelkader, T.K.; Salem, A.E.; Zhang, Y.; Gaballah, E.S.; Makram, S.O.; Fan, Q. Energy and exergy analysis of carbon nanotubes-based solar dryer. J. Energy Storage 2021, 39, 102623.
  13. Shoeibi, S. Numerical Analysis of Optimizing a Heat Sink and Nanofluid Concentration Used in a Thermoelectric Solar Still: An Economic and Environmental Study. Environ. Res. Eng. Manag. 2021, 77, 110–122.
  14. Maleki, A.; Pourfayaz, F.; Ahmadi, M.H. Design of a cost-effective wind/photovoltaic/hydrogen energy system for supplying a desalination unit by a heuristic approach. Sol. Energy 2016, 139, 666–675.
  15. Iqbal, A.; Mahmoud, M.S.; Sayed, E.T.; Elsaid, K.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Alawadhi, H.; Olabi, A. Evaluation of the nanofluid-assisted desalination through solar stills in the last decade. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 277, 111415.
  16. Palanikumar, G.; Shanmugan, S.; Janarthanan, B.; Sangavi, R.; Geethanjali, P. Energy and Environment control to Box type Solar Cooker and Nanoparticles mixed bar plate coating with Effect of Thermal Image cooking pot. Mater. Today Proc. 2019, 18, 1243–1255.
  17. Olabi, A.; Wilberforce, T.; Elsaid, K.; Sayed, E.T.; Ramadan, M.; Rahman, S.A.; Abdelkareem, M.A. Recent progress on Carbon-based nanomaterial for phase change materials: Prospects and challenges. Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog. 2021, 23, 100920.
  18. Maghrabie, H.M.; Elsaid, K.; Sayed, E.T.; Radwan, A.; Abo-Khalil, A.G.; Rezk, H.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Olabi, A. Phase change materials based on nanoparticles for enhancing the performance of solar photovoltaic panels: A review. J. Energy Storage 2022, 48, 103937.
  19. Abdelkareem, M.A.; Mahmoud, M.S.; Elsaid, K.; Sayed, E.T.; Wilberforce, T.; Al-Murisi, M.; Maghrabie, H.M.; Olabi, A. Prospects of Thermoelectric Generators with Nanofluid. Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog. 2022, 29, 101207.
  20. Shoeibi, S.; Rahbar, N.; Esfahlani, A.A.; Kargarsharifabad, H. Energy matrices, economic and environmental analysis of thermoelectric solar desalination using cooling fan. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2022, 147, 9645–9660.
  21. Zanganeh, P.; Goharrizi, A.S.; Ayatollahi, S.; Feilizadeh, M. Nano-coated condensation surfaces enhanced the productivity of the single-slope solar still by changing the condensation mechanism. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 265, 121758.
  22. Elsaid, K.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Maghrabie, H.M.; Sayed, E.T.; Wilberforce, T.; Baroutaji, A.; Olabi, A. Thermophysical properties of graphene-based nanofluids. Int. J. Thermofluids 2021, 10, 100073.
  23. Maghrabie, H.M.; Elsaid, K.; Sayed, E.T.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Wilberforce, T.; Ramadan, M.; Olabi, A. Intensification of heat exchanger performance utilizing nanofluids. Int. J. Thermofluids 2021, 10, 100071.
  24. Manirathnam, A.; Manikandan, M.D.; Prakash, R.H.; Kumar, B.K.; Amarnath, M.D. Experimental analysis on solar water heater integrated with Nano composite phase change material (SCi and CuO). Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 37, 232–240.
  25. Rostami, Z.; Rahimi, M.; Azimi, N. Using high-frequency ultrasound waves and nanofluid for increasing the efficiency and cooling performance of a PV module. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018, 160, 141–149.
  26. Shafii, M.B.; Shahmohamadi, M.; Faegh, M.; Sadrhosseini, H. Examination of a novel solar still equipped with evacuated tube collectors and thermoelectric modules. Desalination 2016, 382, 21–27.
  27. Abdelwahab, S.A.M.; Elbaset, A.A.; Yousef, F.; Abdellatif, W.S. Performance Enhancement of PV Grid Connected Systems with Different Fault Conditions. Int. J. Electr. Eng. Inform. 2021, 13, 873–897.
  28. Saleh, B.; Yousef, A.M.; Abo-Elyousr, F.K.; Mohamed, M.; Abdelwahab, S.A.M.; Elnozahy, A. Performance Analysis of Maximum Power Point Tracking for Two Techniques with Direct Control of Photovoltaic Grid -Connected Systems. Energy Sources, Part A: Recover. Util. Environ. Eff. 2021, 44, 413–434.
  29. Nassef, A.M.; Fathy, A.; Sayed, E.T.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Rezk, H.; Tanveer, W.H.; Olabi, A. Maximizing SOFC performance through optimal parameters identification by modern optimization algorithms. Renew. Energy 2019, 138, 458–464.
  30. Oubelaid, A.; Albalawi, F.; Rekioua, T.; Ghoneim, S.S.M.; Taib, N.; Abdelwahab, S.A.M. Intelligent Torque Allocation Based Coordinated Switching Strategy for Comfort Enhancement of Hybrid Electric Vehicles. IEEE Access 2022, 10, 58097–58115.
  31. Larouci, B.; Ayad, A.N.E.I.; Alharbi, H.; Alharbi, T.E.A.; Boudjella, H.; Tayeb, A.S.; Ghoneim, S.S.M.; Abdelwahab, S.A.M. Investigation on New Metaheuristic Algorithms for Solving Dynamic Combined Economic Environmental Dispatch Problems. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5554.
  32. Elnozahy, A.; Yousef, A.M.; Abo-Elyousr, F.K.; Mohamed, M.; Abdelwahab, S.A.M. Performance improvement of hybrid renewable energy sources connected to the grid using artificial neural network and sliding mode control. J. Power Electron. 2021, 21, 1–14.
  33. Abdelwahab, S.A.M.; Yousef, A.M.; Ebeed, M.; Abo-Elyousr1, F.K.; Elnozohy, A.; Mohamed, M. Optimization of PID Controller for Hybrid Renewable Energy System Using Adaptive Sine Cosine Algorithm. Int. J. Renew. Energy Res. 2020, 10, 669–677.
  34. Mekhilef, S.; Faramarzi, S.; Saidur, R.; Salam, Z. The application of solar technologies for sustainable development of agricultural sector. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012, 18, 583–594.
  35. Srinivasan, R.; Braham, W.W.; Campbell, D.E.; Curcija, C.D. Re(De)fining Net Zero Energy: Renewable Emergy Balance in environmental building design. Build. Environ. 2012, 47, 300–315.
  36. Panagiotidou, M.; Fuller, R.J. Progress in ZEBs—A review of definitions, policies and construction activity. Energy Policy 2013, 62, 196–206.
  37. Hong, T.; D’Oca, S.; Turner, W.J.; Taylor-Lange, S.C. An ontology to represent energy-related occupant behavior in buildings. Part I: Introduction to the DNAs framework. Build. Environ. 2015, 92, 764–777.
  38. Wilberforce, T.; Olabi, A.; Sayed, E.T.; Elsaid, K.; Maghrabie, H.M.; Abdelkareem, M.A. A review on zero energy buildings—Pros and cons. Energy Built Environ. 2021.
  39. Shukla, A.K.; Sudhakar, K.; Baredar, P. Recent advancement in BIPV product technologies: A review. Energy Build. 2017, 140, 188–195.
  40. Maghrabie, H.M.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Al-Alami, A.H.; Ramadan, M.; Mushtaha, E.; Wilberforce, T.; Olabi, A.G. State-of-the-Art Technologies for Building-Integrated Photovoltaic Systems. Buildings 2021, 11, 383.
  41. Das, T.; Bora, G.C. Greenhouse Solar Thermal Application. In Handbook of Research on Solar Energy Systems and Technologies; IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2013; pp. 462–479.
  42. Taki, M.; Rohani, A.; Rahmati-Joneidabad, M. Solar thermal simulation and applications in greenhouse. Inform. Process. Agric. 2018, 5, 83–113.
  43. Sethi, V.; Sharma, S. Thermal modeling of a greenhouse integrated to an aquifer coupled cavity flow heat exchanger system. Sol. Energy 2007, 81, 723–741.
  44. Nayak, S.; Tiwari, G. Energy and exergy analysis of photovoltaic/thermal integrated with a solar greenhouse. Energy Build. 2008, 40, 2015–2021.
  45. Verma, S.; Mishra, S.; Chowdhury, S.; Gaur, A.; Mohapatra, S.; Soni, A.; Verma, P. Solar PV powered water pumping system—A review. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 46, 5601–5606.
  46. Kinkaid, C. Solar PV Water Pumping: How to Build Solar PV Powered Water Pumping Systems for Deep Wells, Ponds, Creeks, Lakes, and Streams; Createspace Independent Pub: North Charleston, SC, USA, 2014.
  47. Khatib, T.; Muhsen, D.H. Photovoltaic Water Pumping Systems Concept; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2020; pp. 5–38.
  48. Florides, G.; Tassou, S.; Kalogirou, S.; Wrobel, L. Review of solar and low energy cooling technologies for buildings. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2002, 6, 557–572.
  49. Speight, J.G. Reaction Mechanisms in Environmental Engineering: Analysis and Prediction; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2018.
  50. Wang, R.; Wang, L.; Wu, J. Adsorption Refrigeration Technology: Theory and Application; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboke, NJ, USA, 2014.
  51. Ghenai, C.; Salameh, T. Sustainable Air Conditioning Systems; BoD–Books on Demand: Norderstedt, Germany, 2018.
  52. Maghrabie, H.M.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Elsaid, K.; Sayed, E.T.; Radwan, A.; Rezk, H.; Wilberforce, T.; Abo-Khalil, A.G.; Olabi, A. A review of solar chimney for natural ventilation of residential and non-residential buildings. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2022, 52, 102082.
  53. Kaushik, S.C.; Lal, S.; Bhargava, P.K. Research and development in solar chimney power plant technologies: A review. Int. J. Renew. Energy Technol. 2015, 6, 197–223.
  54. Kasaeian, A.B.; Molana, S.; Rahmani, K.; Wen, D. A review on solar chimney systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 67, 954–987.
  55. Bansal, N.; Mathur, J.; Mathur, S.; Jain, M. Modeling of window-sized solar chimneys for ventilation. Build. Environ. 2005, 40, 1302–1308.
  56. Harris, D.; Helwig, N. Solar chimney and building ventilation. Appl. Energy 2007, 84, 135–146.
  57. Olabi, A.; Obaideen, K.; Elsaid, K.; Wilberforce, T.; Sayed, E.T.; Maghrabie, H.M.; Abdelkareem, M.A. Assessment of the pre-combustion carbon capture contribution into sustainable development goals SDGs using novel indicators. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 153, 111710.
  58. Obaideen, K.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Wilberforce, T.; Elsaid, K.; Sayed, E.T.; Maghrabie, H.M.; Olabi, A. Biogas role in achievement of the sustainable development goals: Evaluation, Challenges, and Guidelines. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 2022, 131, 104207.
  59. Fernandes, M.; Brites, G.; Costa, J.; Gaspar, A.; Costa, V. Review and future trends of solar adsorption refrigeration systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 39, 102–123.
  60. Emmerich, S.J.; Dols, W.S.; Axley, J.W. Natural Ventilation Review and Plan for Design and Analysis Tools; US Department of Commerce, Technology Administration, National Institute of Standards and Technology: Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 2001.
  61. Dehghani, S.; Mohammadi, A.H. Optimum dimension of geometric parameters of solar chimney power plants—A multi-objective optimization approach. Sol. Energy 2014, 105, 603–612.
  62. Mohamed, A.S.A.; Ahmed, M.S.; Maghrabie, H.M.; Shahdy, A.G. Desalination process using humidification–dehumidification technique: A detailed review. Int. J. Energy Res. 2020, 45, 3698–3749.
  63. Gude, G.G. Renewable Energy Powered Desalination Handbook: Application and Thermodynamics; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2018.
  64. Cipollina, A.; Micale, G.; Rizzuti, L. Seawater Desalination: Conventional and Renewable Energy Processes; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2010.
  65. Santosh, R.; Arunkumar, T.; Velraj, R.; Kumaresan, G. Technological advancements in solar energy driven humidification-dehumidification desalination systems—A review. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 207, 826–845.
  66. DeWinter, F. Solar Collectors, Energy Storage, and Materials; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1990.
  67. Chou, C.-C.; Chiang, C.-T.; Wu, P.-Y.; Chu, C.-P.; Lin, C.-Y. Spatiotemporal analysis and visualization of power consumption data integrated with building information models for energy savings. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2017, 123, 219–229.
  68. Parida, B.; Iniyan, S.; Goic, R. A review of solar photovoltaic technologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2011, 15, 1625–1636.
  69. Wang, R.; Zhai, X. Development of solar thermal technologies in China. Energy 2010, 35, 4407–4416.
  70. Ahmed, M.S.; Mohamed, A.S.A.; Maghrabie, H.M. Performance Evaluation of Combined Photovoltaic Thermal Water Cooling System for Hot Climate Regions. J. Sol. Energy Eng. 2019, 141, 4042723.
  71. Khan, F.; Alshahrani, T.; Fareed, I.; Kim, J.H. A comprehensive degradation assessment of silicon photovoltaic modules installed on a concrete base under hot and low-humidity environments: Building applications. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2022, 52, 102314.
  72. Khan, F.; Kim, J.H. Performance Degradation Analysis of c-Si PV Modules Mounted on a Concrete Slab under Hot-Humid Conditions Using Electroluminescence Scanning Technique for Potential Utilization in Future Solar Roadways. Materials 2019, 12, 4047.
  73. Sandeep, H.; Arunachala, U. Solar parabolic trough collectors: A review on heat transfer augmentation techniques. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 69, 1218–1231.
  74. Kabeel, A.E.; El-Said, E.M.S.; Abdulaziz, M. Thermal solar water heater with H2O-Al2O3 nano-fluid in forced convection: Experimental investigation. Int. J. Ambient Energy 2017, 38, 85–93.
  75. Sahota, L.; Shyam; Tiwari, G. Energy matrices, enviroeconomic and exergoeconomic analysis of passive double slope solar still with water based nanofluids. Desalination 2017, 409, 66–79.
  76. Kim, H.; Kim, J.; Cho, H. Experimental study on performance improvement of U-tube solar collector depending on nanoparticle size and concentration of Al2O3 nanofluid. Energy 2017, 118, 1304–1312.
  77. Khanjari, Y.; Kasaeian, A.; Pourfayaz, F. Evaluating the environmental parameters affecting the performance of photovoltaic thermal system using nanofluid. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2017, 115, 178–187.
  78. Shah, T.R.; Babar, H.; Ali, H.M. Chapter 8—Energy harvesting: Role of hybrid nanofluids. In Emerging Nanotechnologies for Renewable Energy; Ahmed, W., Booth, M., Nourafkan, E., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2021; pp. 173–211.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
This entry is offline, you can click here to edit this entry!
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback