Some of the threats, risks, and integrated water management elements in freshwater ecosystems are discussed. Some discussion of human needs and water conservation issues related to freshwater systems are provided: (1) introduction and background; (2) water basics and natural cycles; (3) freshwater roles in human cultures and civilizations; (4) water as a biosphere cornerstone; (5) climate as a hydrospheric ‘game changer’ from the perspective of freshwater; (6) human-induced stressors’ effects on freshwater ecosystem changes (pollution, habitat fragmentation, etc.); (7) freshwater ecosystems’ biological resources in the context of unsustainable exploitation/overexploitation; (8) invasive species, parasites, and diseases in freshwater systems; (9) freshwater ecosystems’ vegetation; (10) the relationship between human warfare and water. All of these issues and more create an extremely complex matrix of stressors that plays a driving role in changing freshwater ecosystems both qualitatively and quantitatively, as well as their capacity to offer sustainable products and services to human societies. Only internationally integrated policies, strategies, assessment, monitoring, management, protection, and conservation initiatives can diminish and hopefully stop the long-term deterioration of Earth’s freshwater resources and their associated secondary resources.
1. Short Introduction and Background
In spite of the fact that global water resource management is extremely complex, owing to diverse geophysical, climatic, socioeconomic, and political realities, the core of this approach should be the belief that only the conservation of complex ecosystem structures and functions can solve the present global water crisis. The importance of this entry, then, is to highlight a series of principal stressors with synergic effects, which must be considered in terms of the assessment, monitoring, and management of complex freshwater ecosystems.
2. Water Basics and Natural Cycle - in short
The scarcity of freshwater is an increasingly critical problem in many parts of the world. Water quality and quantity can mutually reinforce or affect one another, which necessitate a joint management strategy. Complex integrated local, regional, and global management strategies are urgently needed, as well as specific measures that can be created and implemented. Action is needed before ecological, economic, social, and political disputes appear and grow, in order to avoid international tensions and even potential conflicts ravaging the planet.
3. Freshwater Roles in Human Cultures and Civilizations - in short
Researchers can declare that the human civilization as a whole was built and maintained based on water use. The world’s major cultures and civilizations arose and developed in the proximity of freshwater bodies, which draws attention to their significance.
Throughout history, there have been various ingenious solutions with which to guarantee an ample amount of clean water for human society; however, such technology slowly began to approach a kind of dead end. In terms of its ecological consequences, our knowledge, perspectives, approaches, etc., must be improved. How do people do this? Clearly, it involves further assessment, monitoring, study, management, and governance. These concerns have to do with the role of water in terms of climate, habitats, species, biocoenosis, ecosystems, biomes, and ultimately the biosphere.
As long as human population growth is a dominant contributor to freshwater scarcity and decreasing quality—and it is a fact that the world’s population is growing steadily—the requirements for freshwater and demand on limited freshwater resources with be exacerbated, and the risks for more and greater water conflicts will expand.
Across these local and regional issues, the objective limits of the accessibility of freshwater and its utilization are among the central reasons for hypothesizing a limit to human activities and the long-term increase.
4. Water a Biosphere Cornerstone - in short
The biosphere is the rather thin life-supporting layer of Earth’s surface, forming extremely integrated complexes of ecosystems, from a few kilometers into the atmosphere to the deep-sea hydrothermal vents, as well as soils and geological substrata. Water plays vital roles in the operation of the biosphere. Freshwater ecosystems are essential, providing a varied and crucial collection of products and services upon which human society depends.
Since the quality of world fresh water is influenced by a huge number of physical, chemical, biological, and environmental elements and factors, including climatic features as well as various human activities, it is necessary to determine what the boundaries of the ecosystem are and how the limits of fluctuation in the values of its elements correspond.
5. Climate as a Hydrosphere Game Changer, a Freshwater Perspective - in short
Climate induced hydrosphere modification issues are some of the most intriguing problems to be addressed in our time. In the present climate change context, temperature increases are everywhere, even in surprising areas of the planet, and drought is a main driver for freshwater ecosystems’ ecological state, aquatic biodiversity, and their economic uses, even in what are considered ‘secure’ zones.
6. Human-Induced Stressors’ Effects on Freshwater Ecosystem Changes - in short
There are countless stressors and associations that act as drivers for freshwater ecosystem changes, among them the most relevant for lotic systems and freshwater wetlands are pollution and habitat fragmentation, contraction, destruction and loss, .
7. The Unsustainable Exploitation/Overexploitation of freshwater ecosystem biological resources - in short
Biological resources in freshwater ecosystems have historically been an important source of food for humans. On the other hand, freshwater ecosystems are among the most threatened ecosystems on the planet today. Fish, crustaceans, and mollusks are the resources most used by humans from inland waters as a source of proteins.
At the global level, fish are exploited the most, so freshwater fishing, especially in some less-developed areas (Latin America, Africa, and Asia), is still an important activity that provides the population with a significant amount of food. In economically developed countries of the world (USA, Europe, Japan), recreational fishing is the dominant form of the exploitation of fish resources, but also a significant source of income (fishing tourism, sport fishing, etc.).
With a trend of global increase in human needs, the danger of excessive use of biological resources, primarily fish, is also increasing. The danger of overfishing also comes from increasing competition for freshwater at a global scale. Seawater does not have this problem or it is of minor importance; however, the use of freshwater in industry, agriculture, power generation, and as drinking water directly affects the decline in fish resources and freshwater fisheries. Almost all inland freshwaters in the world face the problem of overfishing, which is often exacerbated by illegal fishing, especially in less economically developed areas.
8. Invasive species, parasites, and disease issues in freshwater systems - in short
The most important factors in the emergence and spread of invasive species are human-induced. With some exceptions, control of invasive species is complex and difficult. For the most part, their effects are still not fully understood and are often underestimated. Biological monitoring programs must be established to prevent and limit the spread of invasive species at national and international levels. The biology and ecology of invasive and native species in the existing ecosystem and their relationships with each other and with their environment must be examined, and a database should be created for effective management and control. Scientific research on invasive species must be intensified. Similar experts should cooperate (zoologist, ecologist, etc.) in the management of invasive species. Those who produce and trade the adults, larvae, or eggs of both aquarium and edible fish should be informed. Effective legislation, including prohibitions and restrictions, should be implemented for fish imported and transferred between countries. Recreational and fishing boats, gear, and equipment used in fishing should not be moved between ecosystems (lakes, rivers, etc). Precautions should be taken in the live bait trade. Existing ecosystems should not be interfered with for mosquito and aquatic plant control, or, if so, the opinion of experts should be consulted in this regard. Public awareness should not be raised by nongovernmental organizations and official authorities.
9. Freshwater ecosystem vegetation issues - in short
Wetland vegetation is characterized by a very close and essential relationship with water. The plants that are most linked to the presence of water are hydrophytes: completely floating, floating rooting, or immersed. The amphibious vegetation, on the other hand, is called helophyte, and it can tolerate both periods of immersion and periods of water desperation. Marsh and swamp vegetation is mainly influenced by groundwater and water supply, and can also be influenced by precipitation. Lowland vegetation (planitial vegetation) is that which develops in alluvial plains (major riverbed), even in cases of exceptional floods. This area is generally the most populated area of the globe, hosting the largest areas covered by civil and industrial settlements, crops, and pastures. Spring vegetation is closely linked to the chemism of the water, and consequently to the leaching of the substrate/soil.
10. War and Water - in short
Any armed conflict afflicting freshwater resources carries significant threats and risks. First of all, these are threats to population, from the settlements’ flooding owing to the destruction of dams and weirs to the inaccessibility of the drinking water of appropriate quality, etc.
Aquatic ecosystems are also affected by hostilities. The disastrous changes to the river hydromorphology and the deterioration of the water quality are because of the flooding of cesspools and landfills, the direct death of the aquatic living resources, the reduction in aquatic biodiversity, and the degradation of the floodplain landscapes, which remained impounded for a long period. The contamination of water bodies is a particular problem. the algorithm of actions in water management over the war is reduced to determine the actual ecological state of the modified, destroyed, and contaminated water bodies.
11. Conclusions
This entry is a synthetic overview on some of the threats, risks, and integrated wa- ter management elements in freshwater ecosystems and its provisions for human needs and water conservation elements related to freshwater: (1) introduction and background; (2) water basics and natural cycles; (3) freshwater roles in human cultures and civilizations; (4) water as a biosphere cornerstone; (5) climate as a hydrospheric ‘game changer ’ from the perspective of freshwater; (6) human-induced stressors’ effects on freshwater ecosystem changes (pollution, habitat fragmentation, etc.); (7) freshwater ecosystems’ biological resources in the context of unsustainable exploitation/overexploitation; (8) invasive species, parasites, and diseases in freshwater systems; (9) freshwater ecosystems’ vegetation; (10) the relationship between human warfare and water. All of these issues and more create an extremely complex matrix of stressors that plays a driving role in changing freshwater ecosystems and their capacity to offer sustainable products and services to the human society. Internationally integrated policies, strategies, assessment, monitoring, management, protection, and conservation initiatives alone can diminish and hopefully prevent the long-term deterioration of Earth’s freshwater resources and associated resources.
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ijerph192416570
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