The Formyl Peptide Receptors: History
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Contributor:
Edward S. Wickstead
,
Egle Solito
,
Simon McArthur

The formyl peptide receptors, abbreviated as FPRs in humans, are pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) with central roles in host defense and inflammation.

  • formyl peptide receptors
  • FPR1
  • FPR2

1. Introduction

The formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) are seven-pass, transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) crucially involved in the inflammatory response. Although their roles in the response to infection and sterile peripheral inflammation have been extensively studied, their function in the central nervous system (CNS) and neuroinflammatory responses has only gradually become apparent [1][2][3][4][5].

2. The Formyl Peptide Receptors

The formyl peptide receptors, abbreviated as FPRs in humans, are pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) with central roles in host defense and inflammation [1][6][7][8]. Although expressed in a number of different cell types, the actions of FPRs have primarily been investigated in cells of myeloid origin; human FPR1 and FPR2 were originally identified in neutrophils and monocytes, while FPR3 was only detected in the latter [9]. These receptors have a diverse array of functions, from eliciting cellular adhesion and directed migration of recruited immune cells through chemotaxis, to granule release and superoxide formation [7][10][11]. The importance of these receptors in non-myeloid cell types has been reported more recently [12][13][14].
This receptor class was initially identified and named based on their ability to bind N-formylated peptides such as N-formylmethionine (fMet), produced through the degradation of both bacteria and mitochondria [15][16]. The ability to recognize N-formyl peptides, including the potent FPR1 agonist and chemotactic agent N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLF), led to the conclusion that FPRs act as PRRs [3][17]. Following their original description, accumulating evidence has shown FPRs to bind to a diverse and continually expanding repertoire of ligands, including not only N-formyl peptides, but also non-formyl peptides of both microbial and host origin, synthetic small molecules, and eicosanoid lipids (Table 1). These molecules all bind to one or several FPRs and have been reviewed in detail previously [2][7][18].
Table 1. Selective ligands of FPR1 and FPR2. Molecules are broadly grouped based on their structure and origins. Binding selectivity for each ligand has been provided. Available in vitro pKD, pEC50 and pIC50 values for ligand interactions with the human FPRs are included. Data has been adapted, compiled and condensed from previously available reviews [7][18][19]. n.d.; values not determined for the human receptors.
Ligand Origin Selectivity pKD pEC50 Model Refs
Formylated bacterial ligands
fMLF E. coli FPR1 6.4–9.3 4.6 Human neutrophils, L cells, RBL-2H3 [2][20][21]
fMIFL S. aureus FPR1, FPR2 n.d. n.d. Mouse neutrophils, RBL-2H3 [22][23]
fMIVTLF Listeria FPR1, FPR2 n.d. n.d. RBL-2H3 [23]
fMVMKFK Haemophilus FPR1, FPR2 n.d. 6.1, 8.1 HEK293 [24]
Formylated mitochondrial ligands
fMLKLIV Mitochondria FPR1, FPR2 n.d. 7.4, 7.3 HL-60 [25]
fMMYALF Mitochondria FPR1, FPR2 n.d. 8.0, 7.8 HL-60, RBL-2H3 [23][25]
Mitocryptide-2 Mitochondria FPR2 n.d. 6.2–6.4 Human neutrophils, HEK293T [26][27]
Non-formylated pathogen-derived ligands
C5a peptide Hepatitis C virus FPR2 n.d. n.d. Human monocytes and neutrophils, HEK293, RBL-2H3 [28]
gG-2p20 Herpes simplex virus FPR1 n.d. 6.2–6.3 Human monocytes and neutrophils [29]
Hp(2-20) Helicobacter pylori FPR2 n.d. 6.5 Human monocytes [30]
Non-mitochondrial host-derived ligands
Aβ Host FPR2 n.d. 7.0 Human monocytes, mouse neutrophils, HEK293, RBL-2H3 [31][32]
Annexin A1 Host FPR2 6.5 n.d. Human neutrophils, HEK293 [6][33][34][35]
Lipoxin A4 Host FPR2 8.8–9.3 ~12.0 Human neutrophils [36][37][38][39]
Resolvin D1 Host FPR2 ~11.9 n.d. Human neutrophils [39]
Serum Amyloid A Host FPR2 n.d. 6.6–7.3 Human monocytes and neutrophils, HEK293 [40][41][42]
LL-37 Host FPR2 n.d. 6.0 Human monocytes, neutrophils, and T cells, HEK293, RBL-2H3 [43][44]
Natural peptide ligands
Cyclosporin H T. inflatum &
T. polysporum		 FPR1 7.0
(pIC50)		 n.d. Human neutrophils [45]
Synthetic peptide ligands
Ac9-25 Synthetic FPR1 n.d. 4.7 Human neutrophils, HL-60 [46]
Ac2-26 Synthetic FPR1, FPR2 5.9 5.8–6.1 Human neutrophils, HEK293 [33][34][47]
WKYMVm Synthetic FPR2 10.1 n.d. human neutrophils, HL-60 [48]
WRW4 Synthetic FPR2 6.6
(pIC50)		 n.d. Human neutrophils, RBL-2H3 [49]
Small molecule ligands
Compound 43 Synthetic FPR1, FPR2 n.d. n.d. CHO, RBL-2H3 [23][50][51]
Compound 17b Synthetic FPR1, FPR2 n.d. n.d. CHO [23][51]
Quin-C1 Synthetic FPR2 n.d. 5.7–6.2 Human neutrophils, RBL-2H3 [23][52]
Quin-C7 Synthetic FPR2 5.2
(pIC50)		 n.d. HeLa, RBL-2H3 [53]
There are three genes which encode for human FPRs: FPR1, FPR2, and FPR3. All three proteins share similar sequence homology and are encoded by genes clustered together on chromosome 19q13.3 in the human genome (Gao et al., 1998; Yi et al., 2007). Of these receptors, FPR1 and FPR2 share a particularly high overall gene sequence homology, with some overlapping functionality [2]. Comparatively, the genes which encode FPRs vary considerably in number between different species. For example, mice have eight known members of the FPR gene family on chromosome 17A3.2, denoted as ‘Fprs’. Despite the discrepancy in receptor numbers across the two species, several receptors share similar functionality, including FPR1/Fpr1, both of which are known to respond to host infection [54] and regulate chemotaxis [10][55][56]. These similarities extend to human FPR2 as well, although murine functionality is encoded by two receptors which work in synergy to carry out comparable functions: Fpr2/3 [57][58]. Highlighting their parallels, amino acid BLAST alignment confirms that these murine receptors display 76% (Fpr2) and 74% (Fpr3) identity alongside 85% (Fpr2) and 81% (Fpr3) homology to human FPR2, while Fpr2 and Fpr3 display 82% identity and 88% homology to each other.
For many years, the crystalline structure of these receptors remained elusive. Instead, structure simulation and molecular modeling [59], computer-aided ligand docking [60][61] and site-directed mutagenesis [62][63] had led to the identification of amino acids within both FPR1 and FPR2 responsible for receptor interactions with several different molecules [7]. More recently, the crystalline structure for FPR1 bound to the pan-formyl-peptide agonist fMLFII was reported with a resolution of 3.2 Å [64]. Further, two independent research groups reported crystalline structures for human FPR2 bound to the hexapeptide WKYMVm—a strong agonist for the receptor—with resolutions of 2.8 Å and 3.17 Å, respectively [8][65]. Zhaung and colleagues expanded further on the crystalline structure of FPR2, reporting interactions with several other known receptor agonists, fMLFII, the anti-inflammatory peptide CGEN-855A, and the synthetic anti-inflammatory small molecule Compound-43 with 3.1, 2.9 and 3.0 Å resolution, respectively [64]. Interestingly, structural comparison of these receptor-agonist conformations indicate the presence of a conserved receptor activation mechanism, suggesting that despite the ligands’ structural differences, receptor stimulation occurs due to similar molecular interactions. However, while these studies provide novel insights into the binding mechanisms of different ligands, it is crucial that the development of FPR crystalline structures continues, including interactions with receptor antagonists like cyclosporin H and WRW4, alongside pathogenic ligands such as serum amyloid A and β-amyloid (Aβ). In terms of the latter, cryo-electron microscopy recently helped elucidate the interaction between Aβ1-42 and FPR2 [66]. However, follow-up research will be important to decipher whether different Aβ formulations—such as monomers, oligomers, or fibrils—display different binding characteristics with this promiscuous receptor.
In summary, identification of novel receptor binding pockets for both pro-resolution and disease associated ligands may prove crucial for the future development of improved FPR associated therapeutics.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/life12122009

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