Climate, Urbanization and Environmental Pollution in West Africa: History
View Latest Version
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Contributor:
Emmanuel I. Ofoezie
,
Adebayo O. Eludoyin
,
Ebere B. Udeh
,
Margaret Y. Onanuga
,
Olalekan O. Salami
,
Abdulquddus A. Adebayo

The need to elucidate the urbanization–climate–pollution nexus in West Africa arose from the several reported, but disjointed cases of climate extremes and environmental degradation in the sub-region. Since colonization and subsequent independence of nations in the West African region, several urban cities began to spring up and gradually grow. Urbanization was essentially characterized by population growth without complementary infrastructural development, weak coping strategies against climate extremes, numerous economic challenges, and high risk of environmental pollution. Initiative for urban renewal, urban greening and smart city development was low, and preparedness against future impact of extreme climate events and climate change is uncertain.

  • urbanization–climate–pollution nexus
  • environmental pollution
  • mitigation and control measures
  • urban restoration
  • smart city
  • sustainable development goals
  • international cooperation
  • West Africa

1. Introduction

Studies have shown that the nexus between urbanization and environmental change within the context of climate change patterns is both interactive and complex, requiring understanding of regional and inter-regional scenarios [1][2]. Urbanization (a general increase in population, infrastructural development and industrialization [3]) is recent in the West African region, as only a few settlements were urban before colonization [4][5][6]. Yukon [7] argued that urbanization in the West African region had evolved in connection with industrial revolution in Europe and America. Prior to that, most West African settlements were principally rural and agrarian, although trans-Saharan trade and, later, the slave trade had created a few urban cities before colonization. However, since colonization and subsequent independence of nations in the West African region, several urban cities began to spring up and gradually grow [6]. According to Castells-Quintana & Wenban-Smith [8], urbanization is now a sign of the times, and urban rural migration which started in the developed nations has gradually reached developing nations, and many people have moved to cities in hopes of better, more prosperous ways of living. Urban growth was further exacerbated by a combined improvement in technologies, sanitation and medical services, which caused both mortality and birth rates to decline, while net population increased [9].
The increasing human population in many urban areas appears to put some level of pressure on many aspects of urban life. It is now estimated that by 2050, 66–70% of the world’s population will live in urban areas. However, this varies from one country to another in West Africa [9][10], increasing from the least urbanized to the most urbanized. Urbanization is estimated at over 60% in Gambia, being the most urbanized country in the sub-region, and 20% in Niger, the least urbanized country in West Africa [11][12]. Urbanization level is between 50% and 60% in Ghana, Mauritania, Liberia, Nigeria and Cote d’Ivoire [11][12]. There are clear indications that some countries in West Africa may attain the world estimated peak of 70% by 2050.
The consequences of urbanization are multifarious and diverse; some are advantageous, others disadvantageous. Paradoxically, it is the same set of development projects that also give rise to disadvantageous consequences [13]. Developmental projects include physical infrastructure for improved industrial and agricultural production, advancement in commerce, healthcare delivery, energy production and utilization; especially biomass energy, road and rail transportation and built-up infrastructure, among others [14][15]. Unraveling the environmental impact of urbanization in any region will essentially involve elucidation of the impacting developmental projects, their types, age and spread in different areas of the region. In West Africa, for instance, an analysis of the stochastic distribution of environmental impacts in different countries of the region, must first begin with an elucidation of developmental projects in each nation. A higher-level analysis will require an assessment of the correlation between the project clusters and environmental impacts in each nation and whether the impact of the projects on the overall sustainability of the environment may lead to a fatal flaw (i.e., limited to the project or the nation) or fundamental impediment (i.e., spread beyond the project and probably across borders to other nations). The outcome of such an assessment will clearly define the most feasible goal of environmental management among environmental restorations, rehabilitation or abandonment [16]. It will also help to determine the best action or strategy required to achieve the preferred goal. Given the rising concerns for climate variability/change and extreme events, studies (e.g., [17][18]) have shown a complex and non-linear relationship with urbanization, probably due to differences in planning policies and response strategies. In Africa, information on the urbanization–climate variability is complex and relatively undefined [18].
Furthermore, although scattered information on development projects and their environmental impacts may be available in the different nations of West Africa, very limited efforts have been made to collate such information for a comprehensive analysis of environmental pollution sources and impacts. Such analysis will help to establish a region-wide action plan for sustainable environment of the sub-region. Although the sub-region has an environmental policy whose goal is to improve on the management of the environmental heritage to support development, the policy did not emphasize actions to improve on the management of development to sustain environmental heritage. This is the major objective of this entry. An effort to review the climate, urbanization and environmental pollution in West Africa promises to be as enormous as it is interesting. It presents an opportunity to unravel the degree to which urbanization contributes to environmental pollution in a region characterized by complex and diverse climatic situations.
The complex and diverse climatic conditions are a reflection of the fact that West Africa is large and expansive. It occupies a land area of 6.14 million km2, spanning 20 Latitudes north of the equator (4–23° N) and 33 Longitudes symmetrically spread across the west and east regions of the Greenwich Meridian (17° W–16° E) [19]. It is located in the westernmost part of Africa, bulging southwards to the Atlantic Ocean and extending northwards to the southern edge of the Sahara Desert, at an elevation of 400 m [20][21][22]. According to the latest United Nations estimates, the current population of West Africa is 420,802,185 which is equivalent to 5.16% of the total world population and more than half the population of Europe [23]. The climate of West Africa is generally tropical but varies significantly from one country to the other according to the latitudes and longitudes. According to Nicholson [21], high-latitude Sahel countries at the fringes of Sahara Desert, such as Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso, experience only one rainy season. This lasts from one to six months per annum, while low latitude coastal countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean, from Gambia to Nigeria, are characterized by two rainy seasons, a long one and a shorter one separated by a short dry spell known as harmattan.

2. Relationships among Climate, Urbanization and Pollution

2.1. Effects of Climate on Human Health

Reviews of studies across the West African region indicate that human and physical environments are vulnerable to the effects of climate change, extreme climatic conditions and vulnerability [24][25][26][27][28][29][30]. The effects are both direct and indirect, direct effects being an increase in morbidity and mortality cases [28][31], while indirect effects include the impact on livelihoods, such as food and water resources. A report by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC)-funded AfricaInteract project noted the following in their summary [32]:
  • Temporal variability of cholera incidence and epidemics was consistently associated with both local rainfall and the global climate variability in coastal West African countries;
  • Of the 14 diseases meeting World Health Organization (WHO) criteria for using climate data in predicting epidemics, six vector-borne diseases (malaria, African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, yellow fever, dengue and Rift Valley fever) are present in West Africa;
  • The six diseases, with schistosomiasis, are already major contributors to the disease burden in West Africa;
  • The decrease in malaria prevalence and incidence is associated with the decline in rainfall, in Sahelian part of the West African regions;
  • Links between climate change and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) are still conjectural, but they are becoming a subject of increasing concern and study.
Direct effects of climatic conditions on infectious diseases across the region are summarized with specific diseases in Table 1 [33]. Thomson et al. [33] noted that many of the vector-bone (malaria, Rift Valley fever, yellow fever; relapsing fever, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis) and non-vector-borne (diarrheal and measles) infectious diseases that are linked with the very high rates of child mortality are climate-related, whereby the transmission [29] often varies with or is influenced by weather or climatic conditions (see Table 1). In general, Orimoloye et al. [26], in a review of publications from the period 2000–2018 on the climate–human health relationship in West Africa, recognized ‘extreme temperature’, ‘altered rainfall pattern’ and ‘sea level rise’ as main concerns in the region. With relevance to extreme temperature, Orimoloye et al. [26], among others, reported that an association between climate change and the health impact of temperature on mortality or non-infectious disease outcomes were inconsistently recognized in studies from the region. The authors also argued that cardiovascular and infectious respiratory diseases exhibited a strong association with mortality and morbidity risks caused by the increased temperature in the region. The review [26] also noted that many rainfall-related studies on the region have predominantly focused on the impact of infectious and vector-borne diseases, but with a lack of consistent associations, while the relationship between rainfall and non-communicable diseases is still poorly known. The poor knowledge in this regard and the report that no known study has associated the health outcomes of sea-level rise to either or both of infectious diseases and non-communicable diseases in the region indicate a knowledge gap in this respect.
Table 1. Common climate-related major causes of morbidity and mortality in West Africa [33].
Disease (and Causative Organism) Mode of
Transmission/Vector		 Potential Climate/Environmental
Determinants
Malaria (Plasmodium sp.) Mosquitoes (Anopheles sp.) Rainfall, humidity, temperature, surface
water and change in vegetation greenness
Rift Valley fever (Phlebovirus) Mosquitoes (Aedes sp.) Rainfall, humidity and temperature
Yellow fever (Flavivirus) Mosquitoes (Culex sp.) Surface water and change in vegetation greenness
Lymphatic filariasis (Wuchereria
bancrofti in Africa)		 Mosquitoes
(Anopheles sp., Aedes sp.,
Culex sp.)		 Rainfall, humidity, temperature,
surface water and change in vegetation greenness
Relapsing fever (Borrelia) Soft ticks (Ornithodorus) Rainfall, humidity, temperature and change in vegetation greenness
Trachoma (Chlamydia trachomatis) Musca sorbens and
mechanical transmission		 Temperature and humidity
Meningococcal meningitis
(Neisseria meningitides)		 Airborne aerosol Absolute humidity, dust and temperature
Pneumonia (viral, bacterial,
mycoplasmas, and other causes)		 Airborne aerosol Cold temperatures
Cholera (Vibrio cholerae) Filth flies (e.g., Musca sp. and mechanical transmission) Poor water sources, flooding of excess pits, and algal blooms
Diarrheal diseases (rotavirus
and other viral and parasitic infections)		 Filth flies (e.g., Musca sp.
and mechanical transmission)		 Poor sanitation associated with water shortages
Schistosomiasis/bilharzia
(Schistosoma sp.)		 Snails (e.g., Bulinus africanus) Surface water
Sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma
brucei gambiensis)		 Tsetse (Glossina sp.) Gallery forests and savanna woodland
Blackflies (Cyclops sp.) Blackflies (Cyclops sp.) Surface water
African eye worm (Loa loa) Blackflies (Chrysops sp.) Forest canopy and forest soils
River blindness (Onchocerca volvulus) Blackflies (Simulium sp.) Wind and river discharge

2.2. Effects of Utilization of Public Utilities on Pollution and Human Health

Public utilities such as electricity, water, transportation, and telecommunications are crucial for socio-economic growth, and their absence would negatively impact the economy [34]. Table 2 and Table 3 compare the levels of accessibility of the population to water, sanitation services as well as air pollution in the different countries in the region. The accessibility of the rural population to basic drinking water and sanitation services was relatively much lower than that obtained in the urban areas, in all the countries (Table 2). Mauritania, Niger and Sierra Leone recorded the least access to basic water and sanitation services in the region. On the other hand, the urban population were better served, although accessibility was relatively lower in Mauritania and Niger than other countries in the region (Table 2). While a lack of data made it impossible to compare the accessibility for safely managed water for all the countries, those with available data showed very weak levels of accessibility, with Cote d’Ivoire (54.5–56.9 %) being the most served country in terms of safely managed water supply, in the region. Table 2 reveals that no country in West Africa served its rural population up to 30% safely managed water and sanitation services, and that the population of Cape Verde were relatively better served in these facilities than any other country in the region. Van den Berg and Danilenko [35] linked the poor access to water and sanitation utilities in the region to rapid population expansion, which the utilities were not provided to cover.
Table 2. Access to water and sanitation services in West African Countries.
  Basic Drinking Water Services (% of Population) Safely Managed Drinking Water Services
(% of Population)		 Basic Sanitation Services
(% of Population)		 Safely Managed
Sanitation Services
(% of Population)
Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban
Benin 62.2–65.4 52.7–58.1 77.5–73.3 * * * 9.2–17.0 2.6–8.0 19.9–26.5 * * *
Burkina Faso 58.1–47.2 53.5–32.7 79.1–80.1 * * * 10.6–21.7 2.3–13.5 40.3–48.5 * * *
Cape Verde 79.1–88.8 70.1–80.1 86.9–93.1 * * * 39.6–79.1 21.1–71.9 55.7–82.7 * * *
Cote d’Ivoire 71.4–70.9 56.2–55.7 91.4–85.1 34.2–35.2 14.6–17 54.5–56.9 21–34.6 7.4–20.5 38.9–47.7 * * *
Gambia 73.8–80.9 65.2–69.2 83.1–88.0 23.5–44.7 4.3–7.6 44.4–66.9 46.9–51.1 25.5–59.5 42–59.6 43.2–29 57.3–24.2 27.9–31.8
Ghana 63.8–85.8 53.2–71.9 77.5–96.1 13.3–41.4 0–16.1 30.2–60.3 7.4–23.7 3.0–17.4 13–28.4 4.4–13.3 2.6–15.0 6.6–12.1
Guinea 53.2–64.0 42.2–50.7 77.8–86.6 * * * 8.8–29.8 3.2–20.5 21.3–45.6 * * *
Guinea-Bissau 56.0–59.0 43.4–49.8 78.2–70.6 17.6–24.3 4.7–11.2 40.3–40.9 5.2–18.2 0.7–5.2 13.1–34.7 3.3–12.2 0.5–4.2 8.2–22.2
Liberia 61.7–75.3 49.1–64.1 77.4–85.5 * * * 13.2–18.2 4.0–6.4 24.7–29.0 – – –
Mali 49.5–82.5 39–72.1 75.9–95.9 * * * 15.7–45.4 8.2–37.3 34.8–55.8 6.1–19.9 5.8–28 7.0–9.6
Mauritania 41.0–71.7 25–49.9 67–89.3 * * * 17.4–49.8 7.0–18.9 34.5–74.8 – – –
Niger 36.8–46.9 26.1–39.2 92.6–85.8 * * * 5.3–14.8 1.8–7.4 23.3–51.7 5.8–16.2 2.5–10.8 23.2–43
Nigeria 43.2–77.6 30.4–61.7 66.9–92.4 13.7–21.7 9.5–17.7 21.5–25.4 28.6–42.7 28.0–33.0 29.8–51.7 21.3–30.5 21.9–25.6 20.1–35.1
Senegal 59.6–84.9 40.2–75.2 88.3–95.3 * * * 37.5–56.8 21.2–46.2 61.5–68.1 14–24.1 12.9–23.9 15.6–24.4
Sierra Leone 40.6–63.8 25.8–52.8 67.3–78.4 4.8–10.6 1.7–9.2 10.5–12.5 10.2–16.5 4.3–9.9 20.9–25.3 8.8–14.0 4.3–9.7 16.8–19.8
Togo 45.3–68.6 28.8–52.1 78.9–90.6 10–19.6 4.2–6.7 21.7–36.8 9.6–18.6 2.9–8.2 23.2–32.5 5.5–9.1 2.6–6.8 11.4–12.3
Asterisked (*) section has no data/record available as of the time of compilation. Data source: www.databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators/preview/on# (accessed on 15 August 2022).
Table 3. Access to selected public utilities services in West African Countries. (Data source: www.databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators/preview/on# (accessed on 15 August 2022).
Countries Greenhouse Gases Emissions in 2000–2019 Access to Electricity
(% of Population) in 2000–2019
CO2 Emissions Overall (Kt) NO2 (000 Metric Tons of CO2 Equivalent Kt Of CO2 Equivalent
(2000–2019)		 Rural Urban Total
Benin 1420–7300 2380–2720 7030–15020 5.4–18.2 47.5–66.1 21.5–41.4
Burkina Faso 940–5000 6390–10120 16130–32210 2.3–4.7 40.3–65.8 9.1–19.0
Cape Verde 220–650 80–60 370–810 31.5–93.5 81.9–94.5 58.4–94.2
Cote d’Ivoire 6490–10830 3030–3090 25870–24860 23.7–43.1 81.5–94.5 48.7–69.7
Gambia 240–580 310–330 2290–2340 18.8–31.6 51.2–80.6 34.3–62.3
Ghana 5740–20040 4490–5370 17630–37650 14.9–74 80.5–94.7 43.7–85.9
Guinea 1490–3950 3030–6670 11470–28330 0.6–19.3 55.9–88.1 15.1–44.7
Guinea-Bissau 150–330 520–780 1540–2580 2.1–15.2 24–56.3 1.3.–33.3
Liberia 430–1180 170–350 840–2220 1.0–8.4 6.9–45.2 3.0–27.5
Mali 1410–5830 8100–14260 21680–44150 1.8–16.5 33.7–94.1 9.6–50.6
Mauritania * * * 2.6–3.1 45–88.4 18.7–47.3
Niger 670–2150 5690–12590 19010–42720 2.0–13.4 40.7–48.4 6.5–19.3
Nigeria 97220–115280 26310–40280 235930–308180 21.3–24.6 84–83.9 43.1–55.4
Senegal 4060–10620 4960–5650 17760–29230 12.8–47.4 74.6–95.2 37.7–70.4
Sierra Leone 330–900 440–1300 2440–6080 3.7–4.8 23.4–54.7 7.8–26.2
Togo 1270–2370 1170–1790 4390–7890 6.4–24 38.5–94.1 17.0–54.0
Asterisked (*) section has no data/record available as of the time of compilation.
In terms of electricity, Cape Verde remains at the top, while Burkina Faso, Niger and Liberia were the least served, with electricity served to less than 20% of the total population (Table 3). Except for Senegal, Ghana and Cape Verde, less than 70% of the total population in the countries in the region have access to an electricity supply. The rural areas in Ghana and Cape Verde were equally far better served with electricity than all the other countries in the region, but the urban areas appear better served (Table 3). A World Bank [36] report associated the poor access to utilities with poor level of manufacturing activities in the region. Nigeria, Ghana and Cote d’Ivoire top the region in generation of greenhouse gases, but there are no data on their sources to correctly determine where they come from. Nonetheless, studies have shown that industrial activities and transportation are major sources of greenhouse gases in the regions [36][37].

2.3. Effects of Utilization of Land and Water on Biodiversity and Physical Resources

Utilization of land and water resources occurs at different spatial magnitudes and intensities in West Africa, causing different levels of impact on the biodiversity across countries in the region. Table 4 documents the varying levels of vulnerability of the land resources to different degrees of vulnerability to desertification, due to the extent of land use and climatic influences among West African countries, as of 2001 [37]. From Table 3, 82.9% of land resources in Gambia was considered to be ‘highly’ vulnerable to desertification, but no piece of land was considered to exhibit ‘low’ vulnerability in Mauritania, where 93% of the land area is climatically dry. Niger, Mauritania and Mali were considerably dry and vulnerable to drought conditions; these three countries have also experienced severe drought conditions in recent times—up to 2015 [38]. In general, Romankiewicz [39] reported that many of the countries in the region that are off the coastlines have experienced high rate of desertification, wind erosion and deforestation, with significant influence on the worsening conditions of migrations and inter-tribal conflicts in the region. With respect to water-related stress, Liberia was estimated to be the most vulnerable to water-based stress in the region, with a 93% index, probably because of the relatively smaller proportion of the land area of the country to water bodies, compared to countries such as Nigeria. Other vulnerable countries, including Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana and Sierra Leone, were not as vulnerable (Table 4).
Table 4. Percentage of total area distribution across countries in West African region, based on degree of vulnerability and stress conditions (dryness or wetness). Data are from [37].
Country Degree of Vulnerability Stress-Based Vulnerability
Low Moderate High Very High Drought-Based Stress Water-Based Stress
Benin 5.4 63.1 31.4 0 0 0
Burkina Faso 11.6 37.8 45.3 4.6 0.6 0
Cote d’Ivoire 16.4 63.3 0.03 0 0 20.3
Gambia 1.1 11.2 82.9 4.8 0 0
Ghana 7.5 48.8 15.2 1.1 0 27.6
Guinea 15.2 73.2 0.4 0 0 11.2
Guinea Bissau 15.4 83.7 0.2 0.7 0 0
Liberia 0.8 2.8 1.3 2.8 0 93.3
Mali 1.4 9.6 17.7 4.2 67.2 0
Mauritania 0 0.39 1.4 5.2 93.0 0
Niger 1.3 0 8.7 8.6 81.4 0
Nigeria 6.5 56.24 28.6 3.2 0.4 5.0
Senegal 5.5 21.25 46.5 19.5 7.4 0
Sierra Leone 65 16 1.4 1.1 0 16.5
Togo 17.7 60.8 21.3 0 0 1.2
Many studies appear to agree that the threats to biodiversity and land resources are, indeed, escalating in the West African region due to human population pressure on the environment [40][41] and climate change, variability or extreme climate conditions [42][43][44][45]. As regards water resources, Cotillon [44] predicted that by 2050, river flow in major basins in West Africa will decline by 8–22%, and annual rainfall average will reduce about 26% by 2100. Studies also indicated the negative impact of poorly planned urbanization, environmentally imbalanced dam construction, road and housing projects, mining, lumbering, subsistence and large-scale agriculture to promote a decline in biodiversity across West African countries [45][46][47][48][49].

2.4. Influence of Urbanization on Air Quality and Human Health

Residents of many urban areas in West Africa are exposed to a wide range of gaseous and particulate air pollution concentrations, which frequently exceed specified air quality guidelines [50]. According to the WHO [51], there are over 3000 distinct anthropogenic air-polluting compounds identified, the bulk of which are organic, and up to 500 distinct compounds exist in vehicle emissions, which dominate the source of air pollution in West African cities [52]. Vehicular emissions account for 25% of all energy-related greenhouse gas emissions, and this is a problem in the west African cities because of a lack of strong control of the importation of second-hand automobiles into the region. Millions of old automobiles transported from Japan, Europe and the United States to West Africa are of low quality, adding considerably to air pollution and impeding attempts to ameliorate the consequences of climate change [53]. The used vehicles, typically 16–20-year-old cars, whose condition often falls below European Union emission standards, account for more than 85% of all vehicles that are brought into the region, on an annual basis [54]. Specifically, for instance, over 60% of automobiles imported into Gambia and Nigeria, in the region, in the last five years, were on average 18.8–20 years old [55].
Table 5 shows the annual average greenhouse emissions, PM2.5 concentration, percentage of exposed population and mortality attributed to household and ambient air pollution per 100,000 population, for the period of 2015–2019, in West African countries. Nigeria was shown to emit the largest amount of greenhouse emissions in the sub-region (Table 5). The country is the most populous, with the most large cities (e.g., Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna, Warri, Kano and Onitsha) and transportation, commercial and industrial activities in the region. Mali, Niger, Ghana and Burkina Faso, with few cities, including Accra (Ghana), Bamako (Mali) and Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), recorded relatively huge amounts of greenhouse gases. The low variability, as determined by the values of coefficient of variability (less than 5%; Table 4), indicate relative consistency in the emission rate within the study period.
Table 5. Annual average greenhouse emissions, PM2.5 concentration and mortality attributed to household and ambient air pollution per 100,000 population, between 2016 and 2019 [56].
Country Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions
(Kt of CO2 Equivalent)		 PM2.5 Air Pollution
Annual Mean Concentration
(µg/m)		 Mortality (/’00,000)
Mean Annual Coeff. of Var (%)
Benin 14,693 3.5 39.0 205
Burkina Faso 31,240 2.4 42.9 206.2
Cape Verde 777 3.2 34.8 99.5
Cote d’Ivoire 24,433 1.3 25.9 269.1
Gambia 2247 3.9 34.0 237
Ghana 35,893 3.9 34.7 203.8
Guinea 27,083 3.3 26.1 243.3
Guinea-Bissau 2520 2.3 29.8 214.7
Liberia 2160 3.0 18.0 170.2
Mali 42,480 3.1 38.5 209.1
Mauritania 13,820 2.7 47.4 169.5
Niger 40,837 3.7 94.1 251.8
Nigeria 300,530 2.0 71.8 307.4
Senegal 28,260 2.5 40.7 160.7
Sierra Leone 6383 4.2 21.6 324.1
Togo 7587 3.4 35.7 249.6
The annual mean concentration of PM2.5 varied as 18.0 µg/m–94.1 µg/m from Liberia to Niger. Niger and Nigeria were ranked first and second, respectively, in terms of the concentrations of PM2.5, while Liberia, Sierra Leone, Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea and Guinea Bissau recorded less than 30 µg/m of PM2.5. The pattern of the distribution of the PM2.5 in the region indicates the need for public concern regarding poor air quality and an increase in health-related issues [57][58]. Urban air pollution is now recognized as one of the biggest contributors to premature death and morbidity from cardiovascular diseases [59]. In Table 5, the mortality rate due to air pollution across the West African region is rated 99.5–324 per hundred thousand population, with Sierra Leone and Nigeria being worse affected than other countries, and Cape Verde and Mauritania being least impacted. There is, however, a need for more data from the region to obtain a better understanding of the temporal trends.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su142315602

References

  1. Elmqvist, T.; Andersson, E.; McPhearson, T.; Bai, X.; Bettencourt, L.; Brondizio, E.; Colding, J.; Daily, G.; Folke, C.; Grimm, N.; et al. Urbanization in and for the Anthropocene. NPJ Urban Sustain. 2021, 1, 6.
  2. Shi, L.; Halik, Ü.; Mamat, Z.; Aishan, T.; Abliz, A.; Welp, M. Spatiotemporal investigation of the interactive coercing relationship between urbanization and ecosystem services in arid northwestern China. Land Degrad. Dev. 2021, 32, 4105–4120.
  3. Chandan, M.C.; Bharath, H.A.; Ramachandra, T.V. Quantifying urbanisation using geospatial data and spatial metrics-a case study of madras. In Proceedings of the Lake 2014: Conference on Conservation and Sustainable Management of Wetland Ecosystems in Western Ghats, Karwar, India, 13–15 November 2014.
  4. Sterman, J.D.; Repenning, N.P.; Kofman, F. Unanticipated side effects of successful quality programs: Exploring a paradox of organizational improvement. Manag. Sci. 1997, 43, 503–521.
  5. Coquery-Vidrovitch, C. The process of urbanization in Africa (from the origins to the beginning of independence). Afr. Stud. Rev. 1991, 34, 1–98.
  6. Njoh, A.J. Urbanization and development in sub-Saharan Africa. Cities 2003, 20, 167–174.
  7. Yuko, E. How the Industrial Revolution Fueled the Growth of Cities; Detroit Publishing Company: Detroit, MI, USA, 2021; p. 6.
  8. Castells-Quintana, D.; Wenban-Smith, H. Population dynamics, urbanisation without growth, and the rise of megacities. J. Dev. Stud. 2020, 56, 1663–1682.
  9. Walther, O.J. Urbanisation and Demography in North and West Africa, 1950–2020; West African Papers, No. 33; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2021.
  10. Cullis, J.D.; Horn, A.; Rossouw, N.; Fisher-Jeffes, L.; Kunneke, M.M.; Hoffman, W. Urbanisation, climate change and its impact on water quality and economic risks in a water scarce and rapidly urbanising catchment: Case study of the Berg River Catchment. H2Open J. 2019, 2, 146–167.
  11. OECD. Development at a Glance: Statistics by Region—Africa. 2020. Available online: https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=Table2A (accessed on 29 July 2022).
  12. Croitoru, L.; Miranda, J.J.; Sarraf, M. The Cost of Coastal Zone Degradation in West Africa, World Bank Group Report. 2019. Available online: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/31428/135269-Cost-of-Coastal-Degradation-in-West-Africa-March-2019.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 27 June 2022).
  13. Ascensão, F.; Fahrig, L.; Clevenger, A.P.; Corlett, R.T.; Jaeger, J.A.; Laurance, W.F.; Pereira, H.M. Environmental challenges for the Belt and Road Initiative. Nat. Sustain. 2018, 1, 206–209.
  14. Pandey, N.; de Coninck, H.; Sagar, A.D. Beyond technology transfer: Innovation cooperation to advance sustainable development in developing countries. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Energy Environ. 2022, 11, e422.
  15. Chen, D.; Xiang, P.; Jia, F.; Guo, J. A systematic review of current status and trends of mega-infrastructure projects. Ain Shams Eng. J. 2022, 13, 101773.
  16. Afuye, G.A.; Kalumba, A.M.; Orimoloye, I.R. Characterisation of vegetation response to climate change: A review. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7265.
  17. Henderson, J.V.; Storeygard, A.; Deichmann, U. Has climate change driven urbanization in Africa? J. Dev. Econ. 2017, 124, 60–82.
  18. Tiba, S. A non-linear assessment of the urbanization and climate change nexus: The African context. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 32311–32321.
  19. Macmillan Publishers Wall Map of West Africa; Macmillan Education Limited: London, UK, 2006; ISBN 0333921232.
  20. Church, R.J. West Africa: A Study of the Environment and of Man’s Use of it: Longman’s; Green and Co., Ltd.: Tokyo, Japan, 1966; 251p.
  21. Nicholson, S.E. The nature of rainfall variability over Africa on time scales of decades to millenia. Glob. Planet. Change 2000, 26, 137–158.
  22. CILSS. Landscapes of West Africa—A Window on a Changing World; U.S. Geological Survey EROS: Sioux Falls, SD, USA, 2016.
  23. Renaud, F.G.; Zhou, X.; Bosher, L.; Barrett, B.; Huang, S. Synergies and trade-offs between sustainable development goals and targets: Innovative approaches and new perspectives. Sustain. Sci. 2022, 17, 1317–1322.
  24. Gautier, D.; Denis, D.; Locatelli, B. Impacts of drought and responses of rural populations in West Africa: A systematic review. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Clim. Change 2016, 7, 666–681.
  25. Adaawen, S. Understanding Climate change and drought perceptions, impact and responses in the rural savannah, West Africa. Atmosphere 2021, 12, 594.
  26. Orimoloye, I.R.; Mazinyo, S.P.; Kalumba, A.M.; Ekundayo, O.Y.; Nel, W. Implications of climate variability and change on urban and human health: A review. Cities 2019, 91, 213–223.
  27. Coates, S.J.; Enbiale, W.; Davis, M.D.; Andersen, L.K. The Effects of Climate Change on Human Health in Africa, a dermatologic perspective: A Report from the International Society of Dermatology Climate Change Committee. Int. J. Dermatol. 2020, 59, 265–278.
  28. Amegah, A.K.; Rezza, G.; Jaakkola, J.J.K. Temperature-Related Morbidity and Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review of the Empirical Evidence. Environ. Int. 2016, 91, 133–149.
  29. USAID 2022. Available online: https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Climate_Change_Impacts_on_Human_Health_and_the_Health_Sector_508_Tagged_Mar_2022.pdf (accessed on 2 March 2022).
  30. Connolly-Boutin, L.; Smit, B. Climate Change, Food Security, and Livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa. Reg. Environ. Change 2016, 16, 385–399.
  31. Eludoyin, O.M.; Adelekan, I.O.; Webster, R.; Eludoyin, A.O. Air temperature, relative humidity, climate regionalization and thermal comfort of Nigeria. Int. J. Climatol. 2014, 34, 2000–2018.
  32. Doumbia, S.; Jalloh, A.; Diouf, A. Review of Research and Policies for Climate Change Adaptation in the Health Sector in West Africa; Working paper/Future Agricultures; University of Sussex: Brighton, UK, 2014; p. 88.
  33. Thomson, M.C.; Connor, S.J.; Ward, N.; Molyneux, D. Impact of climate variability on infectious disease in West Africa. EcoHealth 2004, 1, 138–150.
  34. Scott, I. Teaching an old dog new tricks: Adapting public utility commissions to meet twenty-first century cli-mate challenges. Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 2014, 38, 371.
  35. Van den Berg, C.; Danilenko, A.; Performance of Water Utilities in Africa. Water Papers World Bank. 2017. Available online: http://www.openknowledge.worldbank.org (accessed on 13 March 2021).
  36. World Bank. Energizing Economic Growth in Ghana: Making the Power and Petroleum Sectors Rise to the Challenge. Energy Group, Africa Region, World Bank. 2013. Available online: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/16264 (accessed on 9 January 2021).
  37. Reich, P.F.; Numbem, S.T.; Almaraz, R.A.; Eswaran, H. Land resource stresses and desertification in Africa. In Responses to Land Degradation, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Land Degradation and Desertification, Khon Kaen, Thailand; Bridges, E.M., Hannam, I.D., Oldeman, L.R., Pening de Vries, F.W.T., Scherr, S.J., Sompatpanit, S., Eds.; Oxford Press: New Delhi, India, 2001.
  38. Noureldeen, N.; Mao, K.; Mohmmed, A.; Yuan, Z.; Yang, Y. Spatiotemporal drought assessment over sahelian countries from 1985 to 2015. J. Meteorol. Res. 2020, 34, 760–774.
  39. Romankiewicz, C. West African Migration in the Age of Climate Change: Translocal Perspectives on Mobility from Mali and Senegal. Ph.D. Thesis, Universität Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany, 2019.
  40. Ohwo, O.; Abotutu, A. Environmental impact of urbanization in Nigeria. Br. J. Appl. Sci. Technol. 2015, 9, 212–221.
  41. Dimobe, K.; Ouédraogo, A.; Soma, S.; Goetze, D.; Porembski, S.; Thiombiano, A. Identification of driving factors of land degradation and deforestation in the Wildlife Reserve of Bontioli (Burkina Faso, West Africa). Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2015, 4, 559–571.
  42. Smith, P.; Calvin, K.; Nkem, J.; Campbell, D.; Cherubini, F.; Grassi, G.; Korotkov, V.; Le Hoang, A.; Lwasa, S.; McElwee, P.; et al. Which practices co-deliver food security, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and combat land degradation and desertification? Glob. Change Biol. 2020, 26, 1532–1575.
  43. van der Esch, S.; Sewell, A.; Bakkenes, M.; Berkhout, E.; Doelman, J.C.; Stehfest, E.; Langhans, C.; Fleskens, L.; Bouwman, A.; Ten Brink, B. The Global Potential for Land Restoration: Scenarios for the Global Land Outlook 2; PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency: The Hague, The Netherlands, 2022.
  44. Cotillon, S.E. West Africa Land Use Land Cover Time Series, Fact Sheet 2017–3004; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2017.
  45. Onanuga, M.Y.; Eludoyin, A.O.; Ofoezie, I.E. Urbanization and its effects on land and water resources in Ijebuland, southwestern Nigeria. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2022, 24, 592–616.
  46. Attuaquayefio, D.K.; Folib, J.N. An overview of biodiversity conservation in Ghana: Challenges and prospects. West Afr. J. Appl. Ecol. 2005, 7, 1–18.
  47. Daramola, A.; Ibem, E.O. Urban environmental problems in Nigeria: Implications for sustainable development. J. Sustain. Dev. Afr. 2010, 12, 124–145.
  48. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Fact Book. 2005. Available online: www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ (accessed on 31 March 2021).
  49. Chakravarty, S.; Ghosh, S.K.; Suresh, C.P.; Dey, A.N.; Shukla, G. Deforestation: Causes, effects and control strategies. Glob. Perspect. Sustain. For. Manag. 2012, 1, 1–26.
  50. Katoto, P.D.; Byamungu, L.; Brand, A.S.; Mokaya, J.; Strijdom, H.; Goswami, N.; De Boever, P.; Nawrot, T.S.; Nemery, B. Ambient air pollution and health in Sub-Saharan Africa: Current evidence, perspectives and a call to action. Environ. Res. 2019, 173, 174–188.
  51. WHO. Outdoor Air Pollution, Children’s Health and the Environment; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2008.
  52. Mohanraj, R.; Azeez, P.A. Urban development and particulate air pollution in Coimbatore city, India. Int. J. Environ. Stud. 2005, 62, 69–78.
  53. Zhongming, Z.; Linong, L.; Xiaona, Y.; Wangqiang, Z.; Wei, L. New UN Report Details Environmental Impacts of Export of Used Vehicles to Developing World. 2020. Available online: http://119.78.100.173/C666/handle/2XK7JSWQ/300510 (accessed on 23 May 2021).
  54. Baskin, A.; de Jong, R.; Dumitrescu, E.; Akumu, J.; Stannah, V.R.; Mwangi, A.; Diabate, F.; Quirama, L.F.; Maina, G. Used Vehicles and the Environment: A Global Overview of Used Light Duty Vehicles-Flow, Scale and Regulation. 2020. Available online: http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11822/34175 (accessed on 20 October 2021).
  55. Chowdhury, S.; Pozzer, A.; Dey, S.; Klingmueller, K.; Lelieveld, J. Changing risk factors that contribute to premature mortality from ambient air pollution between 2000 and 2015. Environ. Res. Lett. 2020, 15, 074010.
  56. Naidja, L.; Ali-Khodja, H.; Khardi, S. Sources and Levels of Particulate Matter in North African and Sub- Saharan Cities: A Literature Review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 12303–12328.
  57. Sam-Agudu, N.A.; Rabie, H.; Pipo, M.T.; Byamungu, L.N.; Masekela, R.; Van Der Zalm, M.M.; Redfern, A.; Dramowski, A.; Mukalay, A.; Gachuno, O.W.; et al. The critical need for pooled data on coronavirus disease 2019 in African children: An AFREhealth call for action through multicountry research collaboration. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2021, 73, 1913–1919.
  58. Mir Alvarez, C.; Hourcade, R.; Lefebvre, B.; Pilot, E. A scoping review on air quality monitoring, policy and health in West African cities. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 9151.
  59. Kalisa, E.; Archer, S.; Nagato, E.; Bizuru, E.; Lee, K.; Tang, N.; Pointing, S.; Hayakawa, K.; Lacap-Bugler, D. Chemical and biological components of urban aerosols in Africa: Current status and knowledge gaps. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 941.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
This entry is offline, you can click here to edit this entry!
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback