Plants and vegetables are major sources of food bioactives. Spices and herbs are plant materials that provide a wide range of biologically active compounds. In addition to being used as sources of aroma, flavor, and color and as preservatives, spices and herbs have been used for medicinal purposes and health and wellness for centuries. Aromatic spices can be added to food in their natural state as a powder or extract. In the food industry, it is not only the active parts of vegetables or plants that are important since there are several uses for their waste or by-products as ingredients in different food formulations. Saffron is the commercial name for the dried red stigmas of the Crocus sativus L. flower. It owes its sensory and functional properties mainly to the presence of its carotenoid derivatives, synthesized throughout flowering and also during the whole production process.
Type | Adulterant | Adulterant Concentration | Adulterant Minimal Detection | Adulterants Indicators or Markers | Technique | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. A | Calendula flower Curcuma rhizome Hibiscus flower Paprika fruit Pomegranate fruit Safflower |
10–400 mg/g | 10 | mg/g | 6000–5800 5400–5000 4600–4200 |
cm−1 | FT-NIR/PCA: SIMCA PLS-DA |
[24] |
1. A | Gardenia | 0–100% w/w | 5 | % w/w | Geniposide Deacetyl-asperuloside acid methyl ester Gardenoside Genipin-1-β-D-gentibioside 6”-O-trans-coumaroylgenipin gentibioside Scandoside methyl ester Absence of picrocrocin derivatives |
UHPLC-DAD-MS | [5] | |
1. A | Gardenia extract | ND | 41.7 | g/g | Geniposide | LC–MS | [11] | |
1. A | Gardenia extract | 0–100% | 0.8 0.2 1.8 2.5 2.2 |
% | Kaempferol 3,7,40-O-triglucoside Kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside 7-O-glucoside Kaempferol 3,7-O-diglucoside Kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside Kaempferol 3-O-glucoside |
LC-MS | [37] | |
1. A | Curcuma rhizome | 0.5–20% w/w | 0.5 | % w/w | ND | DNA isolation/ | [30] | |
Bar-HRM | ||||||||
1. A | Calendula Rubia Safflower |
5–35% w/w | 5 | % w/w | 4200 4750 5170 6000–5400 7100–6000 8300 cm |
cm−1 | NIR/PLS-DA | [8] |
1. A | Turmeric, Onion peels Pomegranate peels Calendula petals |
0–30% w/w | 3.7 6.2 3.6 3.5 |
% w/w | 4961–4016 6388–5389 9975–7472 |
cm−1 | FT-NIR/MCR-ALS | [38] |
1. A | Tumeric Safflower G. jasminoides fruit extract |
20% w/w | 20 | % w/w | 7.541, 6.751, 6.059, 7.318, 7.147, 6.819 5.205, 5.138, 5.066 7.569, 7.466, 5.679, 5.121 |
1 H ppm | 1 NMR/OPLS-DA/O2PLS-DA | [18] |
1. A | Buddleja Officinalis flower Calendula petals Gardenia fruit extract Safflower Turmeric |
0–20% w/w | 1.1–1.6 1.9–2.6 1.1–1.5 2.1–2.8 1–1.6 |
% w/w | 1624–1456 and 941–771 1508–1396 and 1167–1055 1794–1626 and 1113–943 1539–1456 and 858–773 1624–1286 and 941–771 |
cm−1 | DRIFTS/PCA PLS-DA |
[15] |
1. B | Saffron style | 5–35% w/w | 5 | % w/w | 4200 4750 5170 6000–5400 7100–6000 8300 |
cm−1 | NIR and MIR/PLS-DA | [8] |
1. B | Saffron stamens | 20% w/w | 20 | % w/w | 5.181 | 1 H ppm | 1 NMR/OPLSDA/O2PLS-DA | [18] |
1. B | Saffron stamens | 0–20% w/w | 2.2–3.1 | % w/w | 4000–600 1963–1626 and 941–771 |
cm−1 | DRIFTS/PCA PLS-DA |
[15] |
1. B | Saffron stamens | 10–400 mg/g | 10 | mg/g | 6000–5800 5400–5000 4600–4200 |
cm−1 | FT-NIR/PLS-DA | [24] |
3 | Carminic acid | 0.5–20% w/w | 10 | % w/w | 1564–1576 1445–1456 1211–1231 810–816 |
cm−1 | FT-IR/PCA/PLS-DA | [39] |
3 | Carminic acid | 0.2–2% w/w | 0.2 | % w/w | Carminic acid at 4.7 min, 495 nm | min, nm | RT-HPLC-DAD | [39] |
3 | Synthetic dyes | ND | Magenta III Rhodamine B |
330.1964 (HRMS) 300.14 (EI-MS) 223.11 (EI-MS) 2.5 (HPLC) 443.2320 (HRMS) 399.17 (EI-MS) 316.21 (EI-MS) 3.4 (HPLC) |
m/z min |
TLC/EI-MS/HRMS HPLC |
[40] | |
3 | Sudan III Sudan I Sudan II Sudan IV |
0.14–7.1 g/Kg | 0.14 | g/Kg | 8.014 6.87 8.618 8.181 |
1 H ppm | 1 H NMR | [41] |
4 | Exhausted saffron | 10–400 mg/g | 10 | mg/g | 6000–5800 | cm−1 | FT-NIR/SIMCA | [24] |
5400–5000 | PLS-DA | |||||||
4600–4200 |
By-Product (Origin and Type of Extract) | Major Components | Concentration | Application | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sepals (Fiesole, Italy; ethanolic) | Trans-4-GG Trans-3-Gg Cis-2-G Kaempferol-3-sophoroside Quercetin diglucoside Kaempferol glucoside Kaempferol sinapoyl glucoside |
3.1 0.8 0.2 6.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 |
mg/g | Phytochemicals | [44] |
Stamens (Fiesole, Italy; ethanolic) | Trans-4-GG Trans-3-Gg Cis-4-GG Trans-2-G Kaempferol-3-sophoroside Quercetin diglucoside Methyl quercetin derivative Methyl quercetin diglucoside Kaempferol-3-sophoroside-7-glucoside |
112.2 33.4 22.0 20.7 1.7 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.5 |
mg/g | Phytochemicals | [44] |
Sepals (Perugia, Italy; ethanolic) | Traces of crocin Kaempferol-3-sophoroside Quercetin diglucoside Kaempferol glucoside Kaempferol sinapoyl glucoside |
nd 8.3 0.7 0.4 0.3 |
mg/g | Phytochemicals | [44] |
Stamens. (Perugia, Italy; ethanolic) | Trans-4-GG | 4 | mg/g | Phytochemicals | [44] |
Trans-2-G | 1.3 | ||||
Methyl quercetin diglucoside | 2.1 | ||||
Quercetin diglucoside | 1.2 | ||||
Methyl quercetin derivative | 1.2 | ||||
Kaempferol-3-sophoroside-7-glucoside | 0.9 | ||||
Kaempferol diglucoside | 0.8 | ||||
Petals (Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India; aqueous) | Not detected | Kashmir dye green and yellow tones | [52] | ||
Petals (Kerman, Iran; aqueous) | Methanol | 355 | ppb | Volatile compounds in the pharmaceutical industry | [43] |
Biogenix aldehyde fragment | 303 | ||||
Acetic acid | 492 | ||||
Isobutanal | 694 | ||||
Furanone | 6397 | ||||
2,3-butanedione | 524 | ||||
Petals (Sardinia, Italy; aqueous) | Kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside | 2790 | mg/L | Antioxidant and colon anticancer activities. | [53] |
Phenylalanine | 1072 | ||||
Delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucose | 822 | ||||
Tyrosine | 619 | ||||
Kaempferol-3,7-di-O-glucoside | 368 | ||||
Isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside | 268 | ||||
Quercetin 3-O-sophoroside | 207 | ||||
Petals (Northeast, Iran; ethanolic and aqueous) | Pelargonidin 3,5-glycosides | 56.1 | % | Antioxidant and colorant activities. | [54] |
3,5 cyanidin-diglycosides | 20.9 | ||||
Petunidin | 15.5 | ||||
Delphinidin 3-glycosides | 4.1 | ||||
Pelargonidin 3-glycosides | 3.4 | ||||
Petals and anthers (Navelli, Italy; ethanolic, oil, and aqueous) | Crocin | 0.6 | % | Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory (in vivo; in vitro). | [55] |
Catechin | 0.2 | ||||
Rutin | 0.1 | ||||
Epicatechin | 0.08 | ||||
p-OH benzoic acid | 0.04 | ||||
Safranal | 0.02 | ||||
Vanillic acid | 0.02 | ||||
Galic acid | 0.09 | ||||
Safranal | 0.05 | ||||
Quercetin | 0.01 | ||||
Petals (Torbat Heydariyeh region, Iran; ohmic extraction) | Crocin | 81.2 | % | Source of natural flavoring, coloring, and antioxidants. | [56] |
Safranal | 5.5 | ||||
Catechin | 1.4 | ||||
Epicatechin | 1.2 | ||||
Delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucose | 74.2 | ||||
Petunidin 3-O-glucoside | 10.3 | ||||
Petunidin 2,5-di-O-glucoside | 8.6 | ||||
Quercetin 3-O-glucoside | 59.5 | ||||
Kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside | 8.2 | ||||
Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside | 6.1 | ||||
Quercetin 3-O-sophoroside | 5.5 | ||||
Kaempferol | 5.4 | ||||
Petals. (Torbat Heydariyeh region, Iran; ultrasound extraction) | Crocin | 79.02 | % | Source of natural flavoring, coloring, and antioxidants. | [56] |
Safranal | 4.03 | ||||
Delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucose | 67.88 | ||||
Petunidin 3-O-glucoside | 10.74 | ||||
Petunidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside | 7.39 | ||||
Quercetin 3-O-glucoside | 54.32 | ||||
Kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside | 8.16 | ||||
Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside | 5.27 | ||||
Quercetin 3-O-sophoroside | 5.12 | ||||
Petals. (Torbat Heydariyeh region, Iran; microwave extraction) | Crocin | 77.42 | % | Source of natural flavoring, coloring, and antioxidants. | [56] |
Safranal | 5.03 | ||||
Epicatechin | 1.02 | ||||
Vanillic acid | 1.03 | ||||
Delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucose | 56.36 | ||||
Petunidin 3-O-glucoside | 11.44 | ||||
Malvidin O-glucoside | 7.94 | ||||
Quercetin 3-O-glucoside | 59.49 | ||||
Kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside | 8.16 | ||||
Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside | 6.13 | ||||
Quercetin 3-O-sophoroside | 5.51 | ||||
Kaempferol | 5.42 |
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods11203245