The Application of Food-Grade Emulsions: History
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Contributor:
Yilin Jie
,
Fusheng Chen

Briefly, an emulsion is simply a mixture of two (or more) liquids that are otherwise immiscible. The detailed investigation of food-grade emulsions, which possess considerable structural and functional advantages, remains ongoing to enhance people's understanding of these dispersion systems and to expand their application scope. 

  • emulsion dispersion system
  • dispersed phase
  • interface structure
  • macroscopic scale

1. Applications on the Dispersed-Phase Scale

Delivery Carriers for Active Substances

Dispersed-phase droplets have been reported to act as capsules that protect bioactive soft substances in the inner phase. Specifically, they can act as carriers for the packaging; protection; and delivery of active ingredients (e.g., curcumin, capsaicin, probiotics, and phytochemicals) to improve product stability, solubility, flavor, and taste. Therefore, the development of emulsion delivery systems, such as natural oil–body emulsions, conventional emulsions, nanoemulsions, Pickering emulsions, double emulsion [1], blended emulsions [2], HIPEs, and self-emulsifying formulations, promotes the innovative application of functionally active substances and is currently an emerging area in the research on foods, pharmaceuticals, materials, and fine chemicals. For example, soft materials exhibiting a range of properties have been designed and delivered using various emulsion carrier technologies to take advantage of the different dispersed-phase properties. As previously reported [3], the dispersed phase of an emulsion system can encapsulate the same soft materials despite differences in the carrier structure, and this is achieved throughout diversified selection and a design based on the nature of the internal packaging.
For example, Liu et al. [4] demonstrated that a natural soybean oil–body emulsion can be used as a carrier for the delivery of curcumin. Self-emulsifying formulation, composed of an oil, a surfactant, and a cosolvent, was easily produced on a large scale and exhibited a high carrying capacity, which resulted in an enhanced bioavailability and efficacy for the active substances. As an example, Wang et al. [5] prepared a solid self-emulsifying system for the delivery of dihydromyricetin, which allowed them to overcome the poor water solubility and short biological half-life of this substance, thereby improving its antioxidant performance and bioavailability and providing a feasible solution for its application in foods and beverages. In addition, Pickering emulsions have been used to encapsulate flavor compounds to hinder their volatilization and oxidative degradation whilst also promoting their effective dispersion into commodities to achieve continuous aroma release [6]. Moreover, they have been used in cannabinoid delivery to prevent poisoning [7]. Furthermore, gelation of the intermediate oil phase of a Pickering double emulsion has been demonstrated to significantly improve the emulsion stability while also leading to an adjustable flavor release [8]. Moreover, Chen and Tang [9] used spirulina phycocyanin-stabilized transparent HIPEs containing a strong antioxidant to encapsulate fat-soluble bioactive substances and achieve their slow release. Additionally, temperature-responsive HIPEs can be used to transport flammable, explosive, volatile, and toxic liquids [10].
In the case of assembling biomacromolecular nutraceuticals for nanoencapsulation and delivery applications, the good interfacial properties of these substances allow them to act as emulsifiers. As a result, the loaded active substances are located at the interface rather than being encapsulated in the dispersed phase [11]. In view of their high resistance to aggregation, nanoparticle-stabilized Pickering emulsions can effectively protect and enhance the absorption of substances in simulated gastrointestinal environments. For example, nanoparticles of soy protein–anthocyanin complexes can be used to prepare stable Pickering emulsions for anthocyanin transport [12], while the self-assembled colloidal particles based on pea proteins and grape seed proanthocyanidins can effectively stabilize emulsions and transport proanthocyanidins [13].
Owing to the fact that emulsion delivery systems exhibit broadly variable structural characteristics, (dis)advantages, digestion mechanisms, and kinetics, it is necessary to select an appropriate delivery method according to the chemical properties, composition, and biological activity of the delivery substance. Moreover, the factors affecting the performances of such delivery methods should be determined, and active substance loss under heating or long-term storage must be evaluated. In addition, it is necessary to review and compare the effectiveness of different delivery methods and evaluate their industrialization potential to obtain stable and high-performance delivery systems. To date, a number of studies have used different emulsion delivery systems for the same active ingredient to enhance the activity and availability, systematically analyzing the load capacity and effectiveness, as well as discussing the challenges and safety issues related to different encapsulation technologies [14]. Since emulsion-based products have specific ingredients and processing/storage requirements, the corresponding studies must be performed on a case-by-case basis. To explore innovative release control methods, regulation of the bioavailability and release spectrum of bioactive substances should be evaluated for different release systems. Furthermore, additional in vivo metabolic kinetic studies are required to verify the efficacy and safety of specific nanofunctional delivery carriers. Moreover, the synergy between different strategies, e.g., co-color and encapsulation strategies for anthocyanin stabilization [15], should be explored.

2. Applications on the Interface Structure Scale

The interface between the dispersed phase and the continuous phase acts as a barrier and ensures continuity. From the viewpoint of the interface structure and functions, the current applications are based on the construction of emulsion-based enzymatic reaction plants relying on mass transfer kinetics, as exemplified by the use of protein colloidal particles to build a Pickering interface catalytic platform for regulating the reaction rate and products. In addition, in the body, the interfacial structure can delay lipid digestion, control lipid digestion and absorption, and alter the lipid/protein digestion dynamics.

2.1. Biphasic Enzymatic Catalysis Systems

Enzymes catalyze many important reactions with high chemo-, regio-, and stereoselectivities. However, such reactions are usually difficult to carry out in biphasic environments. To improve the efficiencies of enzymatic reactions, stabilization of the enzymes at the water/oil interface can be achieved through emulsion formation, which also increases the interface area. In this context, Zhang et al. [16] enzymatically modified pectin in an aqueous/organic biphasic system by grafting salicylic acid (and their isomers) onto pectin molecules to endow them with good antioxidant, emulsifying, and antibacterial activities. Interfacial engineering in Pickering emulsion photocatalytic microreactors has also been demonstrated to yield several advantages, such as the avoidance of particle aggregation, an increase in the specific surface area, and a uniformization of the active sites [17].
To reduce the costs of such enzymatic reactions, demulsification must be performed under relatively mild conditions to recover the enzymes and separate the products. Although amphiphilic molecules are commonly employed to stabilize emulsions, such molecules affect the enzyme activity. Consequently, Pickering emulsions are widely used in catalysis, as they do not affect the enzyme activity; do not induce pollution; and offer the benefits of a facile purification protocol, a high stability, and a large oil/water interface. As such, Pickering emulsions show great potential for application in the development of bipolar enzyme catalytic bioreactors. The use of a mesoporous carbon-immobilized enzyme (i.e., lipase) as both the emulsifier and the catalyst to prepare a green and efficient Pickering emulsion-based reaction system in a one-step process has also been reported, and the emulsion stability was improved without any reduction in the enzyme activity [18]. It was revealed that, in the Pickering emulsion microenvironment, lipase exerted its catalytic effect via the interface activation mechanism, and a sustainable and efficient enzyme reaction factory composed of numerous emulsion droplets was formed. Subsequently, the same group developed a green and highly active microarray enzyme factory, revealing the dual interface activation mechanism of lipase under ultrasonic and emulsion microenvironments, while also achieving a high enzymatic activity, a good stability, an acceptable recyclability and reusability, and an easily scaled-up protocol [19]. The developed green, solvent-free, and efficient catalyst was therefore considered to have significant potential for use in the enzymatic preparation of food lipids. The above enzyme microarray technology can also be widely used for the green and efficient preparation and enzymatic modification of functional lipids, such as sterol esters, vitamin esters, breast milk structural lipids, and resveratrol ester derivatives, thereby providing a new means for improving the physicochemical properties of natural active substances, enhancing their functional activities, and expanding their scope of application [20].
The design and preparation of amphiphilic nanoparticles and the development of novel stimuli-responsive Pickering emulsion systems can be used to increase catalyst separation efficiencies and simplify catalyst recovery [21]. In this context, Xi et al. employed intelligent self-assembled protein colloidal particles [22] and natural sodium caseinate [23] as biomimetic catalysts for cascade reactions at the oil/water interface to assist the production of foods and pharmaceuticals. It was found that pH-responsive Pickering emulsions could sustain >100 emulsification/demulsification cycles, thereby enabling green and sustainable catalytic reactions to be carried out, followed by facile product separation to reduce the time and costs associated with catalyst separation and recovery. Given their excellent engineering versatilities, the above systems can be widely used in heterogeneous catalysis, food production, crude oil recovery, and transportation applications.
The industrial use of Pickering emulsions in biphasic catalysis is limited by their low oil/water volume ratio and their instability. Therefore, the development of Pickering interface biocatalytic systems with high oil/water ratios, high stabilities, and good recyclabilities is a key research aim. In this context, Wang et al. [24] used HIPEs stabilized by enzyme-modified copolymer nanoparticles to produce a two-phase enzymatic catalysis system featuring an optimal balance of flux, stability, and recyclability. In addition, Jiao et al. [25] developed an enzyme microreactor based on an HIPE-containing monolithic column for protein enzymolysis, wherein they achieved a high enzymolytic activity and a good stability. In contrast to conventional immobilized enzyme reactors based on a particle accumulation structure, the open pore structure of the above reactor effectively improved the protein digestion efficiency because of an improved mass transfer and provided a new strategy for the efficient enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins.

2.2. Digestive Effects of Various Substances in the Body

Lipid digestion in food emulsion systems is usually an interfacial process that is mainly influenced by the combination of lipase–biosurfactant (bile salt) complexes with the surfaces of emulsified lipid droplets. Indeed, a number of studies have demonstrated that the structural characteristics of interfacial materials, interfacial film types [26], and interfacial compositions [27] are closely related to the digestive characteristics of emulsions. More specifically, variations in the cellulose lengths [28], types of cellulose [29], and rigidities of the whey protein microgels [30] can modulate the gastrointestinal digestion behaviors of such emulsions. Therefore, the interfacial structures and properties of emulsions that can affect digestion and absorption in vivo are mainly optimized with the aims to regulate lipid digestion, reduce/delay fat absorption, and increase the bioavailability/targeted delivery and release of bioactive substances. Indeed, such strategies are important to improve the nutritional values of food products and to prevent obesity [31]. In this context, it has been reported that the high desorption energy of particles at the Pickering emulsion interface has significant potential for controlling lipid digestion [32]. Therefore, regulation of the rate and degree of lipid and functional factor digestion via interface engineering is a matter of high significance.
In addition, Naso et al. [33] found that food emulsifiers can bind bile salts and influence their structures to control lipid digestion, while Sarkar et al. [34] pointed out that the construction of an oil–water interface prevented the competitive replacement of bile salts and delayed the transport of lipases to lipid substrates to regulate lipolysis in humans. Furthermore, they classified Pickering particles according to their shapes and their enzyme responsiveness properties to explain the behavior and mechanism of stable droplet lipid digestion. They pointed out that control over interfacial particle spacing or adaptability to intestinal biosurfactant desorption can be used to modulate lipid digestion kinetics. Moreover, Chen et al. [35] investigated the enzymatic degradation and bioaccessibility properties of a nanoemulsion featuring β-carotene coated with whey protein isolate (WPI), soybean protein isolate (SPI), and sodium caseinate (SC) during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. It was found that the WPI- and SC-coated samples rapidly adsorbed the lipolysis products and bile salts at the oil–water interface, preventing lipase from approaching the lipid core and thereby reducing the lipolysis and micellization rates. In the SPI emulsion sample, the adsorption and replacement rates of the bile salts were lower, but the adsorption and replacement degrees were higher, which ultimately resulted in a greater number of surface binding sites for the enzyme and accelerated the lipolysis reaction.
Similar studies probed the relationship between the digestion behaviors of interfacial proteins and the bioaccessibilities of the lipophilic emulsion constituents, providing guidance for the design of safe protein-based systems for the delivery of emulsified bioactive molecules. In this context, Zhou et al. [36] exploited the special affinity between procyanidins and proline-rich gliadin to design an emulsion interface and develop an antioxidant Pickering emulsion with digestive resistance. The decrease in the content of released free fatty acids and the inhibition of lipid oxidation indicated that interface structure engineering helps to prevent obesity. In addition, Zhao et al. [37] demonstrated that partial enzymatic hydrolysis can be used to prepare functional soybean protein-based nanoparticles suitable for designing particle-carrying interfaces and delaying the digestibility of lipids in emulsion-based functional foods. Furthermore, Wen et al. [38] deciphered the structural network that endows HIPEs with their stability (i.e., through the formation of a crosslinked soy protein microgel) and their in vitro digestibility. It was demonstrated that the HIPE digestibility was affected by the protein concentration, and the release rate of free fatty acids was slower in the case of intestinal digestion.
Future investigations into interface design parameters and the development of new mathematical models should aid the customization of granular interfaces to delay lipid digestion and achieve the site-dependent controlled release of lipid active molecules in composite soft substance systems. In this case, Zhu et al. [39] reported that lecithin can alleviate protein flocculation and promote fat digestion in an infant formula milk model, thereby mitigating the insufficient supply of fat in such milk powders. Similarly, Liang et al. [40] studied the effects of the dairy emulsifier type and the fat droplet size on the gastrointestinal digestive behavior of a model emulsion; these studies provided valuable information for the optimization of infant formula products and nutritional dairy beverages.
It has also been demonstrated that the gastrointestinal digestion behaviors of lipids in crystalline emulsions can be included by changes in the crystal shape [41], the sizes of the fat crystals [42], and the distribution sites of the crystallizable emulsifiers [43]. Moreover, the crystal structure formed by gel self-assembly can lead to only a small area being available for lipase adsorption, thereby indicating that the development of oil–gel emulsions with different physical properties can result in a favorable lipid bioavailability. Combination with a gel structure may therefore prolong the digestion time in the gastrointestinal tract and achieve continuous release. Thus, the design of an oil–gel system with a controllable lipid digestibility that permits control over the bioavailability of the delivered fat-soluble active substance is a matter of high practical significance [44].

2.3. Effects of Washing and Disinfection

During the washing of fresh food, surfactant molecules are adsorbed around stains, and so the washing effect is closely related to the interface structure. Given the increased incidence of foodborne diseases related to freshly cut products, the food industry requires novel chemical disinfectants to replace chlorine. In this context, Kang et al. [45] studied the influence of the surfactant type on the washing performance of a cinnamon leaf essential oil emulsion for kale leaves and revealed that this effect was strongly influenced by the ionic properties of the surfactant. Importantly, it should be noted that substances capable of replacing detergents have potential applications in the context of food-grade Pickering emulsions.

3. Applications on the Macrostructure Scale

3.1. Design of Structured Soft Materials for Food Applications

The applications of emulsions in foods are fully reflected in the design of structured soft materials for low-fat foods and functional foods with stable interfaces (Figure 1). Overall, such applications involve control over the texture, taste, and appearance of the food.
Figure 1. The key food-grade emulsion-based structured soft materials for food applications and their future research prospects.

3.1.1. Development of Low-Fat Foods

The pursuit of foods containing health lipids is mainly reflected in the development of low-fat foods, the replacement of foods that may contain trans-fatty acids, increases in the unsaturated fat contents in food systems, and reductions in the saturated fat contents. In this context, the use of functional lipid-containing textured foods instead of hydrogenated oils is the preferred choice. Thus, emulsion-based food systems are of great interest because of their value in developing healthy lipid foods that can satisfy the nutrition, taste, texture, and satiety requirements desired by consumers. For example, water-in-oil HIPEs offer a favorable texture and facile usability, while edible oil foams can be used to develop low-fat foods. More specifically, nonaqueous foams formed by oil–gel stirring can be used to develop healthy foods with low fat and saturated fatty acid contents, as well as a desirable taste and texture. To date, structured oils, HIPEs, emulsion gels, and oil gels have attracted significant attention due to their semi-solid or solid textural properties. These systems can replace saturated fats, such as hydrogenated vegetable oils, and can be used to effectively increase the contents of unsaturated fats in various foods. Moreover, the use of double emulsions based on the microstructural binding of water is also a promising fat replacement strategy [46].
Lee et al. [47] developed a highly stable W/O HIPE that consists of 80% water and 20% milk fat droplets and mimics the color and texture of butter while serving as a low-calorie, butter-like spread with a low-fat content. The stability, viscoelasticity, and rheological properties of this HIPE can be further improved by adding carrageenan and beeswax, and the addition of milk proteins, plant-derived proteins, vitamins, and flavoring substances to the internal water phase can be carried out to modify the product flavor, taste, and health benefits.
The potential benefits of edible oil foams and the recent advances in their research have been described by Heymans et al. [48], who also considered the Pickering stability of crystalline particles and the influence of food processing on their crystal properties. In addition, Li et al. [49] found that medium-long-chain diacylglycerol (MLCD) can undergo interfacial crystallization after emulsification and cooling, thereby greatly improving the physical stability of the corresponding Pickering emulsion during storage or freeze–thaw cycling. Researchers also replaced partially hydrogenated palm oil with MLCD to prepare an oil–gel-based non-aqueous foam with a good storage stability, and they demonstrated the suitability of this foam for use in the development of low-calorie health foods with a desirable texture and taste [50]. Furthermore, researchers used the self-assembly and co-crystallization between MLCD and β-sitosterol to form a dense crystal network, which was used to prepare new emulsions for controlling the release of volatile compounds. Using this system, they also further prepared rigid and stable oil gels and nonaqueous foams to promote the development of healthy foods with desirable textures [51]. Similarly, the above authors found that the synergistic action of diacylglycerol and polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) can be used to prepare a water-in-oil emulsion with a high hardness value, a high viscoelasticity, and an excellent freeze–thaw stability [52]. These results have important theoretical and practical significance for reducing the use of traditional saturated hydrogenated fats and constructing novel food systems based on a healthy oil that is free from saturated trans-fats.
Emulsion gels are semi-solid food systems with a gel network structure that combine the properties of emulsions and gels to improve the stability of the mixed emulsion system while also enhancing the rheological properties of the gel. Many foods, including fatty puddings, yogurts, salad dressings, sausages, tofu, and fresh cheese, are emulsion-filled gels. More specifically, HIPEs are typical emulsion–gel systems that contain a high proportion of the dispersed phase and are highly stable. To generate stable emulsion–gel systems, heating, acid treatment, and enzyme treatments can be used to induce crosslinking of the protein matrix and generate a spatial network structure. In addition, cooling and the introduction of metal ions can produce an emulsion–gel network structure from a polysaccharide matrix. The structural and functional properties of the resulting systems can impart oils with the functionalities of solid fats, which is conducive to the development of a wide variety of structural lipids and semi-solid foods, in addition to promoting fat replacement in various foods, as described below.
(1) Functional lipid foods rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids: By constructing and assembling soybean β-conglobulin–polyphenol composite nanoparticles, Tang successfully prepared linseed oil-based HIPEs that exhibited an excellent oxidation stability. These HIPEs exerted an excellent thermal protection effect on β-carotene that was loaded onto flaxseed oil, and they significantly inhibited oxidation of the flaxseed oil [53]. Similarly, the wrapping of oil droplets in a three-dimensional solid gel-phase network (i.e., a hydrogel) has been found to greatly improve the emulsion stability and enhance the mechanical properties of protein hydrogels. This was achieved through the formation of strong interactions between the proteins adsorbed on the oil droplet surfaces and the proteins present in the gel matrix. For example, crosslinking with genipin can enhance the gel properties of hemp seed protein and improve the textures of emulsion-filled products, wherein the degree of crosslinking can be tuned to control product digestibility [54]. Considering that flaxseed oil is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, the above hydrogel may provide new opportunities for the development of functional foods.
(2) Plant-based cholesterol-free mayonnaise: An HIPE system similar to mayonnaise was prepared using plant-based emulsifiers instead of egg yolk to inspire the development and utilization of egg-free mayonnaise [55]. The mayonnaise substitute prepared using wheat gluten HIPEs was similar to mayonnaise in terms of its appearance, microstructure, rheological behavior, and oral friction properties [56]. It has also been reported that HIPEs based on citrus fiber and corn polypeptides can also be used as mayonnaise substitutes and that they exhibit an excellent thixotropic recovery, as well as a good thermal and freeze–thaw stability. As a result, such systems have potential for application in the preparation of new pasteurized sauces and condiments with long shelf lives [57]. Similarly, Lu et al. [58] used a Pickering emulsion constructed from ultra-fine apple peel powder to prepare cholesterol-free mayonnaise as an alternative to traditional mayonnaise, and they demonstrated that the obtained product exhibited excellent nutritional and physicochemical properties, as well as a good stability. In addition, Pickering emulsions stabilized with chitosan–stearic acid nanogels, further incorporating clove essential oil, were used to produce fish oil-enriched mayonnaise with a more gelatinous structure and a good oxidation stability [59]. However, further research is needed to confirm the effects of other food ingredients in the commercial mayonnaise recipe [60].
(3) Margarine substitutes: Using peanut protein microgel particles as an emulsifier, Jiao et al. [61] developed new types of HIPEs. As these systems did not contain trans-fats, and since they resembled margarine in terms of their external morphologies, rheological behaviors, and other functional properties, they were considered to be potential margarine substitutes. Such systems are of importance since they can help reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancers caused by trans-fats.
(4) Oil gels/hydrogel emulsions: The use of biopolymers to construct new oils with zero trans- and saturated fatty acid contents is of great significance in terms of improving the nutritional values and health profiles of fat-based foods. Example systems include emulsion-based oil gels [62] and hydrogel emulsions [63]. In addition, Wang et al. [64] constructed a camellia seed oil–gel system loaded with SPI nanoparticles using an emulsion template method, while Pan et al. [65] reported the xanthan gum-assisted fabrication of a stable gelatin–procyanidin emulsion-based oil–gel and successfully applied it to pastry to delay oxidation. Furthermore, Yang et al. [66] recently demonstrated that egg white protein particles and rhamnolipid-based emulsion gels could substitute butter in the preparation of cookies, and they found that the appearance, texture, and taste of the cookies were improved. Moreover, a gel prepared using whey protein and sodium dodecyl sulfate was employed as a fat substitute in low-fat sausages to improve their water retention capability, emulsion stability, and texture properties [67], while a phenolic compounds-supplemented emulsified gel was used as a substitute for animal fat in Frankfurt sausages to increase their oxidative stability during cold storage [68]. Importantly, no adverse effects were detected in relation to the sensory/physicochemical properties or the fat structure of these Frankfurt sausages. Moreover, the good thermal and storage stabilities of the sausages indicate the potential of such systems for helping to meet the demand for high-quality healthier products.
As mentioned above, emulsion gels have been widely used to develop healthy meat products [69], reduce the levels of trans-fats, and impart greater stabilities to the food structures and to heat-sensitive ingredients. However, as the abovementioned HIPEs are not suitable for direct consumption because of their high oil contents, researchers have developed low-oil-phase emulsion gels, such as emulsion filling gels [70], emulsion fluid gels, and emulsion granular gels, to reduce the oil contents and broaden the application scope of emulsion gels. For example, Hu et al. [71] prepared a defatted Antarctic krill protein-stabilized low-oil emulsion gel using high-intensity ultrasonication. They found that the stability of this gel could be attributed to the steric hindrance and hydrophobic interactions between the constituent particles, and the potential value of this gel was demonstrated for food, nutrition, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic applications. Moreover, upon the addition of curcumin, the antioxidant properties of the low-oil-phase emulsion gel foods were enhanced, and the lipid-soluble nutrients, which can be easily oxidized in a low-fat diet, were protected [72].
The development of healthy lipid alternatives for foods is full of opportunities and challenges, and so, it is necessary to evaluate the application of mixed fat substitutes in food matrices in terms of their melt and cooling effects; their physicochemical properties (i.e., hardness, texture, crisp, daub, and chewiness); and their nutritional and technological functions. Moreover, fundamental investigations are required to ensure that such systems can mimic the beneficial properties of lipids and to develop cheaper and more facile processes. It should also be noted that the wide range of food systems available to people exhibit a variety of different complexities, and the interactions between different substances in their compositions may affect the final product characteristics. For example, Gutiérrez-Luna et al. [73] reviewed gels as replacements for lipids in baked goods and examined their application effects and nutritional properties and described various challenges faced in the production of nutritionally enhanced foods, particularly those related to their technical and sensory acceptability. In addition, Grossmann et al. [74] recommended a series of standardized methods for testing the quality attributes of plant-based milk and cream substitutes. It is expected that their work will aid the design of plant-based milk substitutes with properties similar to those of real dairy products; this and similar studies are of great significance for promoting the development of fat-based foods exhibiting better health, nutrition, and safety profiles.

3.1.2. Development of Functional Foods with Stable Interfaces

Functional foods with stable interfaces in different textural states can be developed using a selection of food emulsion systems. Currently, emulsion-based functional foods mainly include salt-reducing foods, edible solid foams, inflatable emulsions, edible protein films, and functional drinks. Interestingly, variations in the pH of mung bean protein-based emulsions and the addition of calcium have been demonstrated to produce a texture similar to that of an egg; therefore, these emulsions have potential use as a liquid egg substitute [75].
Due to the significant health risks associated with a high-salt intake, the development of salt-reducing foods has received growing attention [76]. In this context, Wang et al. [77] discussed a promising method for regulating the salinity by reducing the sodium content through the emulsion-based delivery of NaCl. In addition, the emulsion size, the emulsion drying process, the obtained powder form, the oil phase composition, and the positioning of NaCl in the emulsion were identified as promising research directions for the rational design of emulsion systems to achieve sodium reduction. Furthermore, Sun et al. [78] widely discussed a design strategy based on adjusting the structures of foods and salts to achieve salt reduction, and they examined the relationship between salt reduction and the structural characteristics of the emulsion-based products. Compared to single-emulsion systems, double-emulsion systems were found to offer an enhanced sensory perception of salty taste, since the dissolved salt is present in both the internal and external phases. In terms of a cheese matrix, this relatively loose and porous microstructure promotes salt release; however, the release of salt in this matrix can be limited by increasing the gel strength.
The application of edible solid foams with adjustable structures and mechanical properties has attracted attention in the food industry [79]. For example, Zhang et al. [80] prepared an O/W Pickering emulsion stabilized by soy protein isolate/bacterial cellulose, and they produced an edible solid foam with excellent mechanical properties and a good biocompatibility after removing the solvent from the emulsion.
Whipped cream is a typical inflatable emulsion that can be described as a three-phase system composed of water, oil, and air. In this system, a proportion of the agglomerated fat spheres forms a crystalline network to wrap the air present in the system and generate a foam. In this context, Wang et al. [81] found that to meet various production needs, an appropriate emulsifier formula can be selected according to the functional differences between emulsifiers, ultimately leading to the generation of dairy and non-dairy inflatable emulsions with good sensory properties and textures. This synergistic effect between emulsions can lead to superior product qualities, an enhanced foaming rate and foam hardness, an increased viscosity of the inflatable emulsion, and an improved emulsion stability to enhance fat floating.
Heating and drying are the key factors that are known to affect the properties of soybean protein films. More specifically, it has been reported that increasing the heating temperature had no obvious effect on the protein composition of a soy protein isolate–oil emulsion film; however, the glass transition temperature of the protein was increased [82]. Thus, optimization of the production and drying processes allowed the preparation of an edible protein film from soybean protein and soybean oil. This film can potentially replace tofu skin in traditional products, such as rotten skin shrimp rolls, pork rolls, and rice balls.
The application of colloidal emulsions in beverages is also on the rise. For example, due to their favorable taste, flavor, and nutritional value, acidic milk beverages have broad market prospects. However, their processing and storage often induce emulsification and precipitation, which can have detrimental effects on the sensory qualities and the shelf lives of products; this problem can be mitigated through the addition of polysaccharide hydrophilic colloids. More specifically, Guo et al. [83] reviewed the stabilizing effects of polysaccharide macromolecular hydrophilic colloids on acidic milk beverages, in addition to evaluating the functions, influencing factors, regulation methods, and stabilization mechanism of these colloids. Moreover, they reviewed strategies related to the structural modification and functional improvement of polysaccharide stabilizers, revealing the trends and challenges of developing plant protein-based acidic beverages. Furthermore, Du et al. [84] designed a sports and meal substitute drink using a high-energy emulsion containing high oil, protein, and maltodextrin contents. Regulation of the stability, viscosity, and color of protein drinks provides a theoretical basis for the manufacture of such products with different sensory characteristics. Recently, it has been reported that Pickering emulsions based on soy protein isolate–tannic acid can protect aroma compounds in beverages [85], and the preparation of solid drinks (e.g., oil powders) based on the Pickering emulsion template and spray-drying [86] or vacuum freeze-drying [87] is also an important research direction. For example, tea powders are required to have a high water-solubility, a controllable oxidation stability, excellent rehydration properties, and a good fluidity.

3.1.3. Effective Additives in the Food Industry

In view of their favorable functional properties, emulsion systems can be used as ingredients or effective additives in the food industry, wherein they can play a role similar to that of food additives to improve the taste, color, flavor, safety, and shelf life of the final product. Some key examples of such emulsion systems are detailed as follows:
(1) Antiaging agents: Dun et al. [88] investigated the effects of micro- and nanoemulsions on the gelatinization and aging characteristics of rice starch. They found that the addition of emulsions inhibited the short- and long-term aging of rice starch, thereby demonstrating the potential applications of such emulsions in starch foods. Researchers have also developed an antiaging and bacteriostatic edible emulsion film based on mung bean starch and guar gum [89]: the emulsion film prepared using sunflower seed oil improved the quality of rice cakes and inhibited their aging during storage; the emulsion film prepared using grape seed extract was found to exhibit antibacterial activity and was also suitable for application in the rice cake industry.
(2) Adhesives: Pure starch-based adhesives often exhibit poor mechanical properties, water resistance properties, and storage stabilities. To address this, a starch-based adhesive emulsion reinforced by amphiphilic nano-TiO2 was examined, and this system was found to induce crosslinking between the latex particles inside the starch adhesive, ultimately enhancing the stability and adhesion properties of the adhesive [90]. Moreover, the crosslinking induced in this system altered the water migration rate and the film formation time during adhesive curing, thereby endowing the starch film with a superior compatibility with food matrices, in addition to a higher strength and an elevated water resistance.
(3) Stabilizers: The quality of chicken sausage is known to depend strongly on the related emulsifying stability. Typically, nonmeat proteins (e.g., whey protein, casein, and soy protein) are added to improve the emulsifying stability of a meat product. However, non-meat proteins can act as allergens. Zhu et al. [91] found that l-arginine/l-lysine could improve the emulsifying stability of chicken sausage by increasing the electrostatic repulsion of emulsion droplets and decreasing the interfacial tension between soybean oil and water, thereby achieving a breakthrough in chicken sausage production without using nonmeat proteins. In addition, Fang et al. [92] found that high-quality golden line surimi gel products could be prepared under the combined action of emulsified lard and transglutaminase, while Xu et al. [93] recently reported that the simultaneous addition of salt and HIPEs stabilized by yolk-modified starch complexes could positively affect the formation of chicken surimi gel; promote the generation of a compact gel network structure; improve the gel properties (e.g., hardness, texture, and viscoelasticity); and reduce losses during cooking, which demonstrated that HIPEs have great potential use as healthier lipid components in meat products.
(4) Color protectors: As reported by Tao et al. [94], steppogenin, vitamins C and E, and butylhydroxytoluene can be used to prepare oil-in-water microemulsions. This microemulsion technology can greatly increase the solubility of steppogenin, reaching values 3000 times greater that in water, and it also provides an effective solution for the inhibition of enzymatic browning of fresh apple juice by flavonoid tyrosinase inhibitors. Furthermore, the addition of antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E and butylhydroxytoluene, also enhances the stability of the juice during storage.
(5) Antimicrobials and antioxidants: It is widely known that the oxidative spoilage of food leads to a deterioration of food quality, and so, the application of nanoemulsion systems that deliver antioxidants and antibacterial agents to replace traditional antioxidants and antibacterial preservatives is of particular interest. In such emulsion-based products, plant essential oils and polyphenols are commonly used as antimicrobial and antioxidant substances, respectively [95]. Feng et al. [96] found that the addition of a vitamin E-containing nanoemulsion to fish sausage could effectively delay the oxidation of fish sausage oil and protect the degradation of the unsaturated fatty acids. The prepared nanoemulsion exhibited a small particle size, a uniform particle size distribution, and an excellent stability, ultimately promoting the antioxidant effect of the encapsulated vitamin E. Moreover, the addition of this nanoemulsion did not affect the texture, color, or other sensory properties of the fish sausage, which is conducive to food industry applications. Similarity, a curcumin and rosemary nanoemulsion was found to be applicable to all perishable fish products examined in a recent study by Ceylan et al. [97], wherein treatment of the fish surface with the nanoemulsion effectively limited the growth of bacteria, thereby inhibiting bacterial spoilage. Furthermore, it was reported that the encapsulation of cinnamon essential oil in a chitosan- and pectin-based nanoemulsion led to a system that greatly improved the water dispersity, thermal and chemical stabilities, bioavailability, and biological activity of the essential oil, whilst also permitting its controlled release to ensure the quality, safety, and nutritional status of the meat slices [98]. Moreover, the combination of low-temperature atmospheric plasma and aromatic alcohol nanoemulsions was demonstrated to have a significant synergistic inhibitory effect on Escherichia coli O157:H7 and salmonella in instant chicken [99]. This finding could lead to the improved control of these pathogens in cooked chicken without affecting the degree of oil oxidation, which is an important index for evaluating the meat quality. As a further example, da Rosa et al. [100] used a pluronic surfactant-based nanoprecipitation method to encapsulate oregano and thyme essential oils in zein nanocapsules, and they demonstrated that these heat-resistant nanocapsules could be used as in situ bread preservatives to protect the bread from mold. The potential use of such systems has also been discussed for the delivery of plant essential oils and extracts as preservatives and antioxidants for cheese and cheese products [101]. In this case, the encapsulation of these oils is advantageous over the direct addition approach, since it helps to avoid the flavors and odors associated with the oils. Importantly, encapsulation also prolongs the antibacterial and antioxidant activities and can lead to superior control over moisture and mass losses while improving the shelf life of cheese and enhancing its physicochemical/sensory characteristics. Moreover, nanoemulsions and bionanocomposite membranes have been found to control the oxidation rate and the degree of carbon dioxide exchange in cheese, while also acting as carriers of antimicrobial agents [102]. Such advantages can ultimately reduce weight loss and minimize microbial decay to improve the shelf life of cheese.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods11182883

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