Aromatic Plants and Bioactive Compounds: History
View Latest Version
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Contributor:
Radu Claudiu Fierascu
,
Irina Fierascu
,
Anda Maria Baroi
,
Alina Ortan

Natural compounds obtained from different medicinal and aromatic plants have gained respect as alternative treatments to synthetic drugs, as well as raw materials for different applications (cosmetic, food and feed industries, environment protection, and many others). Based on a literature survey on dedicated databases, the content includes a critical discussion of aspects regarding classical extraction versus modern extraction techniques; possibilities to scale up (advantages and disadvantages of different extraction methods usually applied and the influence of extraction parameters); and different medicinal and aromatic plants’ different applications (medical and industrial applications, as well as the potential use in nanotechnology).

  • medicinal plants
  • bioactive compounds
  • biomedical applications
  • industrial applications

1. Introduction

Natural compounds obtained from different medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have gained respect as alternative treatments, as well as raw material for different applications. Medicinal plants are a source of bioactive compounds that act as drugs in traditional treatments [1]; meanwhile, aromatic plants represent a rich source of essential oils, which can be used for their aroma and flavor [2]. MAPs are also used in cosmetics, functional food, or natural dyes production [3], thousands of species are all over the world being explored and exploited [4]. Another recent application is in the nanotechnology area, where the plant extracts’ phytoconstituents act as reducing and capping agents for the reduction of metallic ions from solutions in order to obtain different metallic nanoparticles, with further biomedical or industrial applications [5] (Figure 1).
/media/item_content/202209/632d5a07caef0ijms-22-01521-g001.png
Figure 1. Some of the potential applications of medicinal and aromatic plants.
The increased population led to a higher utilization of these plants, so their residues are proportional, with a huge amount of biomass generated as by-products [6], representing a growing market in the natural-based products [7]. The general use of MAPs all over the world is not homogenic, due to different factors: (i) in developed countries, even if the demand for natural treatments is high, profits of the growers and producers remain low because of the existing intermediaries which increase the price, as well as the lack of organization and networking by the poor collectors of medicinal plants from the wild; (ii) rigorous regulations and documentations requirements; and (iii) in less developed countries, there are poor traceability mechanisms from plant to population [8].
In this context, there are many studies reporting biological effects that can be attributed to MAPs or derived products, against several diseases, such as cancer, neurological, respiratory, inflammatory, cardiovascular diseases, and many others [9][10][11][12]. Using phytoconstituents or natural-based products as complementary treatments improved the oxidative status, which is due to their activity in compensating the inefficacy of the endogenous defense systems and in the enhancement of the overall antioxidant response [13][14]. Under stress conditions, the human body produces more reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) than enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, which is conducive to cell damage and health problems [15], and biological active products have a crucial role in combating oxidative stress.
In addition to traditional medical applications of medicinal and aromatic plants, there is the possibility of using them in cosmetic products, feed or food additives and preservatives, or as a viable tool for biotechnological applications, such as the enhancement of secondary metabolites by genetic engineering [16][17][18].

2. Classical Extraction Versus Modern Extraction Techniques: Possibilities to Scale up

Classical methods were developed during the time, such as a simple approach involving only water, herbs, and energy [19]. During the optimization process, the economic costs and energy necessary for obtaining different bioactive compounds tends to decrease, leading to higher yields of target compounds. Instead of maceration, decoction, or infusion, in the past, researchers developed methods such as Soxhlet, Clevenger, Kumagawa, or Likens–Nickerson simultaneous distillation–extraction, which, in turn, are replaced in the present day with modern equipment such as microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction [20], or ultrasound-assisted extraction [21]. Some examples are presented in Table 1 in order to present conditions for classical extraction versus necessary conditions for modern methods.
Table 1. Comparation of classical and modern extraction techniques for medicinal and aromatic plants.
Plant Extraction Method Extraction
Conditions		 Obtained
Compounds		 Extraction Yield Reference
Allium
sativum Linn.		 Microwave-assisted hydro-distillation Solvent: deionized water/diethyl ether 2:1; 100 g vegetal material;
MP = 700 W; t = 30 min;		 Diallyl sulfides (mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-);
Methyl allyl sulfides (di- and tri-);
Vinyl dithiins		 0.22% [22]
Ultrasound-assisted extraction Solvent: diethyl ether (50 mL); F = 35 kHz;
T = 25 °C; t = 30 min.		 0.13%
Lickens–Nickerson apparatus Solvent: water/diethyl ether = 1:10; 100 g. vegetal material; T = −10 °C; t = 2 h. 0.23%
Hippophae rhamnoides L. Solvent-free microwave-assisted extraction 400 g vegetal material atmospheric pressure;
P = 400 W;
T = 20–100 °C; t = 15 min.		 Polyphenols with an increased yield of recovery for microwave extraction method 1147 mg GAE/g (d.w.) [23]
Classical extraction Solvent: methanol 80% (50 mL); 5 g vegetal material;
8000 rpm; t = 5 min.		 741.9 mg GAE/g (d.w.)
Matricaria chamomilla L. Subcritical water
extraction		 Solvent: water (300 mL); 10 g vegetal material; P = 30, 45 and 60 bars;
T = 100 °C; t = 30 min;		 Polyphenols 127–3226 mg/kg [24]
Maceration Solvent: water (100 mL); 2.5 g vegetal material—oven-dried chamomile at low temperatures (i.e.,
40 °C);
T = 100 °C; t = 120 min.		 Polyphenols 19.7 ± 0.5 mg/g (d.w.) [25]
Mentha spp. Microwave hydro-
diffusion		 Solvent-free; 500 g vegetal material;
MP 1 W/g; F 2.45 GHz
t = 20 min.		 Essential oil 0.95% [26]
Soxhlet extraction Solvent: water: ethanol = 3:7 (250 mL); 1.5 g dry plant material;
T = 95 °C		 Polyphenols 18,381–87,024 mg GAE/kg (d.w.) [27]
Origanum vulgare L., 1753 Supercritical
extraction		 CO2 flow rate = 2.4 kg/h; 0.6 kg of vegetal material: CO2/plant ratio = 20 kg/kg; P = 30 MPa; T = 40 °C. Carnosic acid 3.18 ± 0.40% [28]
Hydro-distillation 300 g vegetal material;
t = 45 min		 Essential oil rich in terpenes 0.75% (d.w.) [29]
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Maceration Solvent: dichloromethane/ethanol = 3/1 (15 mL); 1 g vegetal material;
T = 35 °C; t 3 h.		 Carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, carnosol 16.82; 0.12; 9.31 mg/g (f.w.) [30]
Supercritical fluid
extraction		 Solvent-free CO2 extraction; flow rate: 5 g/min; 100 g vegetal material; P = 100–300 bar;
T = 40 °C; t = 3 h.		 Carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, camphor, 1,8-cineole 1.0730; 0.1242; 0.44; 0.029% (d.w.) [31]
Microwave-assisted extraction Solvent: ethanol 96 %; 25 g milled leaves;
Liquid/solid ratio =
6/1 (v/w); t = 7 min.		 Carnosic acid,
rosmarinic acid		 3.3 ± 0.2 % (w/v)
3.1 ± 1.2 % (w/v)		 [32]
Salvia
officinalis L.		 Supercritical CO2
extraction		 Solvent-free CO2 extraction; flow rate: 1–3 kg/h; 50 g. of vegetal material;
P = 15 or 20 MPa;
T = 25 °C; t = 90 min.		 Terpenes and
phenolic compounds		 0.659–5.477 % (w/v) [33]
Hydro distillation (Clevenger-type
apparatus)		 Solvent: water (1 L); 100 g vegetal material;
t = 180 min.		 Terpenes and phenolic compounds 2.0–2.1% (v/w) [34]
Maceration Solvent: ethanol (70%)—25 mL; 5 g of vegetal material;
t = 2 days;		 Rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, carnosol and methyl carnosate n.p. [35]
Satureja hortensis L. Maceration Solvent: ethanol 96% (300 mL); 10 g vegetal material;
T = 22 °C; t = 7 days.		 Phenolic
compounds		 125.34 mg GAE/g [36]
Soxhlet extraction Solvent: ethanol 96% (600 mL); 75 g vegetal material;
t = 8 h.		 119.28 mg GAE/g
Microwave extraction Solvent: ethanol 96% (100 mL); 5 g vegetal material;
t = 30 min		 147.21 mg GAE/g
Thymus
daenensis Celak. and Thymus
kotschyanus Boiss. and Hohen		 Hydro-distillation (Clevenger-type
apparatus)		 50 g vegetal material;
t = 3 h.		 Thymol,
p-cymene,
β-caryophyllene
methyl carvacrol		 1.2–2.4% [37]
Thymus munbyanus Boiss. & Reut., 1852 Pressurized liquid
extraction		 Solvent: acetone; ethanol; water; 20 g. vegetal material; P = 45 MPa;
T = 70 °C; t = 10 min		 Oxygenated monoterpenoids; sesquiterpenoids and monoterpenoids 21.2 ± 0.6% [38]
Where d.w.—dry weight; F—frequency; f.w.—fresh weight; GAE—gallic acid equivalents; MP—microwave power; n.p. —not provided by the authors; P—pressure; T—temperature; t—time.
From the data presented in Table 1, it can be seen that for the same plant, extraction conditions may vary, depending on each method: for classical methods, the extraction time and the amount of solvent used are higher than for modern techniques compared to the obtained extraction yield (i.e., Satureja hortensis L. or Hippophae rhamnoides L.), thus leading to new approaches and perspectives. Recently, researchers proposed the introduction of a “Green Certificate”, which is based on weighted penalty points and the use of a color code in which reagent toxicity and volume, energy consumption, and the quantity of generated wastes (in the extraction step) are the main parameters used for the quantification of the “green” character [39][40][41]. All of these parameters contribute to a “greener character of the technique”, which is sometimes more important than the easiness of obtaining results. The classical approaches usually provide the lowest green certificate values, which is due to the energy and high amounts of solvents consumption. The “green certificate” is based on the application of a color code associated to a letter, class A being the “greenest” one [41]. The selection of a suitable solvent is crucial to improve the extraction yields, and moreover, the amount of resulted waste after the extraction. Polar solvents are commonly used, such as ethanol, methanol, and isopropanol [42], but the trends in “green chemistry” are going toward novel solvents with less toxicity as natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) [43]. Espino and coworkers developed and optimized ultrasound-mediated extraction for phenolic compounds from Larrea cuneifolia Cav. 1800, which is a medicinal plant from the Larrea genus used in the Argentinian folk medicine [44]. They chemometrically optimized the extraction conditions, obtaining better results than using classical solvents in terms of resulted wastes: thus, for conventional techniques (maceration, decoction, heat reflux), wastes are in the range 1.5–2.85 penalty points for waste calculated according to the methodology previously mentioned [39][40][41], while for modern techniques, such as microwave and ultrasound-assisted extractions, wastes are in the range of 1–1.5 penalty points for waste, which are calculated according to the same protocol. These values of penalty points of the wastes offer a green certificate of class A (with a value in the range 100–90) and class B (89–80). Considering the results presented by the authors, the use of NADES and modern extraction techniques (such as ultrasound extraction) could be successfully applied for the scale-up of the procedure.
Another “green solvent” is carbon dioxide, which can be used as the main solvent for supercritical fluid extraction, having advantages such as non-toxicity and thermodynamic parameters, which facilitates its use in the supercritical state [45], being a suitable solvent first for non-polar molecules (lipids, terpenes, etc.), followed by more polar molecules [46]. In the case of Salvia officinalis L., Jokić and coworkers optimized a supercritical CO2 extraction method for terpenes and phenolic compounds, obtaining increased yields of recovery (7.4%) by varying the utilized pressure (15 or 20 MPa) [33] in only 90 min of extraction; meanwhile, Miguel and collaborators, through hydro-distillation obtained in 180 min a decreased yield of recovery (2%) [34]. Moreover, the quality of the obtained compounds can be modified depending on the extraction method used; Ollanketo and coworkers demonstrated that pressurized hot water extraction is a highly promising alternative to conventional solid–liquid techniques, in terms of final application of the recovered compounds; the highest antioxidant activities did not correspond to the maximum recovery yields, but the antioxidant activity was highest when pressurized hot water (PHW) was used as the extracting solvent instead of the maceration method [35]. In this case, the quality of the compounds is influenced by the extraction conditions, in which an increased time and temperature lead to a decrease of biological effects of the obtained compounds. In addition, some compounds do not respond to a classical or modern solvent (such as NADES) extraction, and it is necessary to optimize an enzymatic process and break hydrogen or hydrophobic bonding, which keeps them trapped in the polysaccharide–lignin network [47].
As a pro argument for modern extraction techniques, in addition to the reduced costs and energy, there is the use of a cascade of different solvents, which is due to the existence of a complex matrix of MAPs; this approach is conducive to the recovery of a large range of bioactive compounds. This is the case of Algerian Thymus munbyanus Boiss. & Reut., 1852, where acetone, ethanol, and water were used in successive pressurized extractions [38]. The recuperation of the solvents, especially the toxic ones such as acetone, can be performed under vacuum conditions, removing the possibility of contamination on the environment or on the final products. In addition to oxygenated monoterpenoids, such as camphor (11.7%) and geraniol (7.5%), and sesquiterpenoids and monoterpenoids, such as (E)-nerolidol (13.7%), terpinen-4-ol (10.6%), and camphor (7.6%), researchers also obtained geranyl acetate (6.3%) and β-terpinyl acetate (5.1%), caryophyllene oxide (5.1%) and borneol (5.6%), respectively β-terpinyl acetate (4.8%) and linalool (4%).
A proper balance in choosing the methods and setting operational parameters could lead to an optimized process, obtaining different compounds from a plant matrix, which in other conditions would be damaged or could not be obtained [48]. The structure of target molecules can influence their solubility at different conditions of high pressure; in extreme conditions, interactions and aggregations or even their re-adsorption are possible. Using moderate conditions such as medium pressures or temperatures automatically can result in lower costs and energies, which is beneficial for all the production and processing chain. Moreover, for modern extraction methods, for which it is not necessary to use organic or toxic solvents, the obtained bioactive compounds could achieve, in certain conditions, a “green characteristic” and can be used in further applications such as the design of foods with improved functionality or medical care.
Modern extraction methods have attracted a great amount of interest in the last few years, especially due to their scale-up possibilities and their ability to provide superior quality extracts with economic benefits; a scientific and analytical approach must be conducted for this step. The classical extraction method can be also scaled up, but factors such as instrumentation, batch/flow process, kinetics, economics, energy consumption, and amounts of wastes tilt the balance toward the scale up of non-conventional extraction techniques, such as microwaves or ultrasonic-assisted, supercritical fluid, negative cavitation, pressurized fluid, etc. [49]. In some cases, the adequate parameters for lab scale can be used in scale-up process [50], but in other cases, maintaining the same conditions can led to a decreased recovery yield when the scaled-up method is applied [51]. In the optimization process, there must be a balance between the parameters, and according to Belwal and coworkers, every method must prove its maturity level through technology readiness levels (TRL) [49].

3. The Influence of Extraction Conditions

For each method used as an extraction technique, optimization of the parameters is mandatory. The reaction parameters that can influence the extraction process are the used solvent, temperature, ratio of vegetal material/amount of solvent, pH, extraction time, and factors related to the raw material matrix [52].
According to the experiments performed by different authors, the most suitable solvents for bioactive compounds extraction are water for anthocyanins, phenolic acid, saponins, terpenoids recovery [53][54][55][56], and alcohols such as methanol or ethanol, alone or as mixtures, for anthocyanins, phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, or terpenoids recovery [57][58]. Alcohols have the property of increasing cell permeability by affecting the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane, permitting a good transfer of bioactive compounds into the solvent. In addition, the water/alcohol mixtures permit a good recovery yield, especially for phenolic compounds, which have a good solubility, due to the alcohol presence (Figure 2).
Ijms 22 01521 g002 550
Figure 2. Commonly used solvents in the extraction process.
In the last years, the application of neoteric solvents received special interest, in order to minimize the use of toxic components and maximize the extraction efficiencies, with an emphasis on reducing their toxicity after usage [59]. This category includes ionic liquids and deep (natural) eutectic solvents, which were used due to their possibility toward tailored-extraction, thus increasing extraction efficiency for complex matrixes. Ionic liquids are suitable for different bioactive compounds, such as alkaloids [60] or phenolic compounds [61] due to the good miscibility of target compounds with the solvent. Eutectic solvents have the same properties with ionic liquids, and beside this, they are less toxic and more biodegradable [62]. In addition, bio-based solvents received special interest, such as 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, limonene, or 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, successfully replacing solvents such as n-hexane and toluene with lower production costs and increased biodegradability [63]. Some of these solvents are not commercially available, and they are not still used at an industrial level. Nowadays, the experiment must be carried out with respect to the balance between environment and production costs, in order to achieve full sustainability in the process implementation.
Depending on the plant matrix, temperature is another important parameter that is necessary in the optimization process. Increased temperature can lead to a higher solubility of the analyte, but at the same time, it can lead to the degradation of thermo-sensitive compounds [64]. In the processes where neoteric solvents are used, the temperature significantly modifies the properties of the solvent, thus modifying the solubility of the analytes [65].
The role and optimization of time, pH, solid–liquid ratio, or pressure are discussed in different papers [66][67][68][69][70], as these are significant parameters that can influence the extraction efficiency. Moreover, it cannot be stated than one parameter is more important than another, each of them having a tremendous influence on the overall extraction process results.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ijms22041521

References

  1. Fierascu, R.C.; Fierascu, I.; Ortan, A.; Georgiev, M.I.; Sieniawska, E. Innovative approaches for recovery of phytoconstituents from medicinal/aromatic plants and biotechnological production. Molecules 2020, 25, 309.
  2. Manousi, N.; Sarakatsianos, I.; Samanidou, V. Extraction techniques of phenolic compounds and other bioactive compounds from medicinal and aromatic plants. In Engineering Tools in the Beverage Industry. Volume 3: The Science of Beverages; Grumezescu, A.M., Holban, A.M., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing: Duxford, UK, 2019; pp. 283–314.
  3. Saha, A.; Basak, B.B. Scope of value addition and utilization of residual biomass from medicinal and aromatic plants. Ind. Crops Prod. 2020, 145, 111979.
  4. Zengin, G.; Mollica, A.; Aumeeruddy, M.Z.; Rengasamy, K.R.; Mahomoodally, M.F. Phenolic profile and pharmacological propensities of Gynandriris sisyrinchium through in vitro and in silico perspectives. Ind. Crops Prod. 2018, 121, 328–337.
  5. Fierascu, I.; Georgiev, M.I.; Ortan, A.; Fierascu, R.C.; Avramescu, S.M.; Ionescu, D.; Sutan, A.; Brinzan, A.; Ditu, L.M. Phyto-mediated metallic nano-architectures via Melissa officinalis L.: Synthesis, characterization and biological properties. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 12428.
  6. Saha, A.; Tripathy, V.; Basak, B.B.; Kumar, J. Entrapment of distilled palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii) wastes in alginate beads for adsorptive removal of methylene blue from aqueous solution. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy 2018, 37, 1942–1953.
  7. Elfalleh, W.; Kirkan, B.; Sarikurkcu, C. Antioxidant potential and phenolic composition of extracts from Stachys tmolea: An endemic plant from Turkey. Ind. Crops Prod. 2019, 127, 212–216.
  8. Volenzo, T.; Odiyo, J. Integrating endemic medicinal plants into the global value chains: The ecological degradation challenges and opportunities. Heliyon 2020, 6, e04970.
  9. Bazak, R.; Houri, M.; Achy, S.E.; Hussein, W.; Refaat, T. Passive targeting of nanoparticles to cancer: A comprehensive review of the literature. Mol. Clin. Oncol. 2014, 2, 904908.
  10. Chen, R.J.Y.; Jinn, T.R.; Chen, Y.C.; Chung, T.Y.; Yang, W.H.; Tzen, J.T.C. Active ingredients in Chinese medicines promoting blood circulation as Na+/K+-ATPase inhibitors. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 2011, 32, 141–151.
  11. Pacher, P.; Steffens, S.; Haskó, G.; Schindler, T.H.; Kunos, G. Cardiovascular effects of marijuana and synthetic cannabinoids: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 2018, 15, 151–166.
  12. Chandrashekhar, V.M.; Ranpariya, V.L.; Ganapaty, S.; Parashar, A.; Muchandi, A.A. Neuroprotective activity of Matricaria recutita L. against global model ofischemia in rats. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2010, 127, 645–651.
  13. Berger, R.G.; Lunkenbein, S.; Ströhle, A.; Hahn, A. Antioxidants in food: Mere myth or magic medicine? Crit. Rev. Food Sci. 2012, 52, 162–171.
  14. Bouayed, J.; Bohn, T. Exogenous antioxidants—double-edged swords in cellular redox state: Health beneficial effects at physiologic doses versus deleterious effects at high doses. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2010, 3, 228–237.
  15. Bessada, S.M.F.; Barreira, J.C.M.; Oliveira, M.B.P.P. Asteraceae species with most prominent bioactivity and their potential applications: A review. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 76, 604–615.
  16. El-Sayed, S.M.; Youssef, A.M. Potential application of herbs and spices and their effects in functional dairy products. Heliyon 2019, 5, e01989.
  17. Faccio, G. Plant complexity and cosmetic innovation. IScience 2020, 23, 101358.
  18. Jha, P.; Sen, R.; Jobby, R.; Sachar, S.; Bhatkalkar, S.; Desai, N. Biotransformation of xenobiotics by hairy roots. Phytochemistry 2020, 176, 112421.
  19. Rassem, H.H.A.; Nour, A.H.; Yunus, R.M. Techniques for extraction of essential oils from plants: A review. Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2016, 10, 117–127.
  20. Frohlich, P.C.; Santos, K.A.; Palú, F.; Cardozo-Filho, L.; da Silva, C.; da Silva, E.A. Evaluation of the effects of temperature and pressure on the extraction of eugenol from clove (Syzygium aromaticum) leaves using supercritical CO2. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2019, 143, 313–320.
  21. Saleh, I.A.; Vinatoru, M.; Mason, T.J.; Abdel-Azim, N.S.; Aboutabl, E.A.; Hammouda, F.M. A possible general mechanism for ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) suggested from the results of UAE of chlorogenic acid from Cynara scolymus L. (artichoke) leaves. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2016, 31, 330–336.
  22. Kimbaris, A.C.; Siatis, M.G.; Daferera, D.J.; Tarantilis, P.A.; Pappas, C.S.; Polissiou, M.G. Comparison of distillation and ultrasound-assisted extraction methods for the isolation of sensitive aroma compounds from garlic (Allium sativum). Ultrason. Sonochem. 2016, 13, 54–60.
  23. Périno-Issartier, S.; Zill-e-Huma; Abert-Vian, M.; Chemat, F. Solvent free microwave-assisted extraction of antioxidants from sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) food by-products. Food Bioproc. Technol. 2011, 4, 1020–1028.
  24. Cvetanović, A.; Švarc-Gajić, J.; Zeković, Z.; Gašić, U.; Tešić, Z.; Zengin, G.; Mašković, P.; Mahomoodally, M.F.; Đurović, S. Subcritical water extraction as a cutting edge technology for the extraction of bioactive compounds from chamomile: Influence of pressure on chemical composition and bioactivity of extracts. Food Chem. 2018, 266, 389–396.
  25. Harbourne, N.; Jacquier, J.C.; O’Riordan, D. Optimisation of the extraction and processing conditions of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) for incorporation into a beverage. Food Chem. 2009, 115, 15–19.
  26. Vian, M.A.; Fernandez, V.; Visinoni, F.; Chemat, F. Microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity, a new technique for extraction of essential oils. J. Chromatogr. A 2008, 1190, 14–17.
  27. Patonay, K.; Szalontai, H.; Csugány, J.; Szabó-Hudák, O.; Kónya, E.P.; Németh, E.Z. Comparison of extraction methods for the assessment of total polyphenol content and in vitro antioxidant capacity of horsemint (Mentha longifolia (L.). J. Appl. Res. Med. Aromat. Plants 2019, 15, 100220.
  28. Fornari, T.; Ruiz-Rodriguez, A.; Vicente, G.; Vázquez, E.; García-Risco, M.R.; Reglero, G. Kinetic study of the supercritical CO2 extraction of different plants from Lamiaceae family. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2012, 64, 1–8.
  29. Binello, A.; Orio, L.; Pignata, G.; Nicola, S.; Chemat, F.; Cravotto, G. Effect of microwaves on the in situ hydrodistillation of four different Lamiaceae. Compt. Rendus Chim. 2014, 17, 181–186.
  30. Wellwood, C.R.L.; Cole, R.A. Relevance of carnosic acid concentrations to the selection of rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis (L.), accessions for optimization of antioxidant yield. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004, 52, 6101–6107.
  31. Carvalho, R.N.; Moura, L.S.; Rosa, P.T.V.; Meireles, M.A.A. Supercritical fluid extraction from rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis): Kinetic data, extract’s global yield, composition, and antioxidant activity. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2005, 35, 197–204.
  32. Rodríguez-Rojo, S.; Visentin, A.; Maestri, D.; Cocero, M.J. Assisted extraction of rosemary antioxidants with green solvents. J. Food Eng. 2012, 109, 98–103.
  33. Jokić, S.; Molnar, M.; Jakovljević, M.; Aladić, K.; Jerković, I. Optimization of supercritical CO2 extraction of Salvia officinalis L. leaves targeted on oxygenated monoterpenes, α-humulene, viridiflorol and Manool. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2018, 133, 253–262.
  34. Miguel, G.; Cruz, C.; Faleiro, M.L.; Simões, M.T.F.; Figueiredo, A.C.; Barroso, J.G.; Pedro, L.G. Salvia officinalis L. essential oils: Effect of hydrodistillation time on the chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Nat. Prod. Res. 2011, 25, 526–541.
  35. Ollanketo, M.; Peltoketo, A.; Hartonen, K.; Hiltunen, R.; Riekkola, M.L. Extraction of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) by pressurized hot water and conventional methods: Antioxidant activity of the extracts. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2002, 215, 158–163.
  36. Mašković, P.; Veličković, V.; Mitić, M.; Đurović, S.; Zeković, Z.; Radojković, M.; Cvetanović, A.; Švarc-Gajić, J.; Vujić, J. Summer savory extracts prepared by novel extraction methods resulted in enhanced biological activity. Ind. Crops Prod. 2017, 109, 875–881.
  37. Nickavar, B.; Mojab, F.; Dolat-Abadi, R. Analysis of the essential oils of two Thymus species from Iran. Food Chem. 2005, 90, 609–611.
  38. Bendif, H.; Adouni, K.; Miara, M.D.; Baranauskienė, R.; Kraujalis, P.; Venskutonis, P.R.; Nabavi, S.M.; Maggi, F. Essential oils (EOs), pressurized liquid extracts (PLE) and carbon dioxide supercritical fluid extracts (SFE-CO2) from Algerian Thymus munbyanus as valuable sources of antioxidants to be used on an industrial level. Food Chem. 2018, 260, 289–298.
  39. Armenta, S.; Garrigues, S.; de la Guardia, M. The role of green extraction techniques in green analytical chemistry. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 2015, 71, 2–8.
  40. Armenta, S.; de la Guardia, M.; Namiesnik, J. Green microextraction. In Analytical Microextraction Techniques; Valcarcel, M., Ed.; Bentham Science Publishers: Sharjah, UAE, 2017; pp. 3–27.
  41. Armenta, S.; Esteve-Turrillas, F.A.; Garrigues, S.; de la Guardia, M. Green Analytical Chemistry: The Role of Green Extraction Techniques. In Green Extraction Techniques Principles, Advances and Applications; Ibáñez, E., Cifuente, A., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; Volume 76, pp. 1–25.
  42. Bravo, J.; Monente, C.; Juániz, I.; De Peña, M.P.; Cid, C. Influence of extraction process on antioxidant capacity of spent coffee. Food Res. Int. 2013, 50, 610–616.
  43. Espino, M.; de los Ángeles Fernández, M.; Gomez, F.J.V.; Silva, M.F. Natural designer solvents for greening analytical chemistry. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 2016, 76, 126–136.
  44. Espino, M.; de los Ángeles Fernández, M.; Gomez, F.J.V.; Boiteux, J.; Silva, M.F. Green analytical chemistry metrics: Towards a sustainable phenolics extraction from medicinal plants. Microchem. J. 2018, 141, 438–443.
  45. Khaw, K.Y.; Parat, M.O.; Shaw, P.N.; Falconer, J.R. Solvent supercritical fluid technologies to extract bioactive compounds from natural sources: A review. Molecules 2017, 22, 1186.
  46. Lefebvre, T.; Destandau, E.; Lesellier, E. Selective extraction of bioactive compounds from plants using recent extraction techniques: A review. J. Chromatogr. A 2021, 1635, 461770.
  47. Latif, S.; Anwar, F. Physicochemical studies of hemp (Cannabis sativa) seed oil using enzyme-assisted cold-pressing. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2009, 111, 1042–1048.
  48. Cvetanović, A.; Švarc-Gajić, J.; Mašković, P.; Savić, S.; Nikolić, L.J. Antioxidant and biological activity of chamomile extracts obtained by different techniques: Perspective of using superheated water for isolation of biologically active compounds. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 65, 582–591.
  49. Belwal, T.; Chemat, F.; Venskutonis, P.R.; Cravotto, G.; Jaiswal, D.K.; Bhatt, I.D.; Devkota, H.P.; Luo, Z. Recent advances in scaling-up of non-conventional extraction techniques: Learning from successes and failures. TrAC Trend Anal. Chem. 2020, 127, 115895.
  50. Kotnik, P.; Skerget, M.; Knez, Z. Supercritical fluid extraction of chamomile flower heads: Comparison with conventional extraction, kinetics and scale-up. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2017, 43, 192–198.
  51. Meullemiestre, A.; Petitcolas, E.; Maache-Rezzoug, Z.; Chemat Rezzoug, S.A. Impact of ultrasound on solid–liquid extraction of phenolic compounds from maritime pine sawdust waste. Kinetics, optimization and large-scale experiments. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2016, 28, 230–239.
  52. Fierascu, R.C.; Sieniawska, E.; Ortan, A.; Fierascu, I.; Xiao, J. Fruits by-products—A source of valuable active principles. A short review. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 2020, 8, 319.
  53. Ferreira, L.F.; Minuzzi, N.M.; Rodrigues, R.F.; Pauletto, R.; Rodrigues, E.; Emanuelli, T.; Bochi, V.C. Citric acid water-based solution for blueberry bagasse anthocyanins recovery: Optimization and comparisons with microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). LWT 2020, 133, 110064.
  54. Yang, Y.; Kayan, B.; Bozer, N.; Pate, B.; Baker, C.; Gizir, A.M. Terpene degradation and extraction from basil and oregano leaves using subcritical water. J. Chromatogr. A 2007, 1152, 262–267.
  55. Rodrigues, L.G.G.; Mazzutti, S.; Vitali, L.; Micke, G.A.; Ferreira, S.R.S. Recovery of bioactive phenolic compounds from papaya seeds agroindustrial residue using subcritical water extraction. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 2019, 22, 101367.
  56. Majeed, M.; Hussain, A.I.; Chatha, S.A.; Khosa, M.K.; Kamal, G.M.; Kamal, M.A.; Zhang, X.; Liu, M. Optimization protocol for the extraction of antioxidant components from Origanum vulgare leaves using response surface methodology. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2016, 23, 389–396.
  57. Aziz, N.A.A.; Hasham, R.; Sarmidi, M.R.; Suhaimi, S.H.; Idris, M.K.H. A review on extraction techniques and therapeutic value of polar bioactives from Asian medicinal herbs: Case study on Orthosiphon aristatus, Eurycoma longifolia and Andrographis paniculate. Saudi Pharm. J. 2021.
  58. Švarc-Gajić, J.; Stojanović, Z.; Carretero, A.S.; Román, D.A.; Borrás, I.; Vasiljević, I. Development of a microwave-assisted extraction for the analysis of phenolic compounds from Rosmarinus officinalis. J. Food Eng. 2013, 119, 525–532.
  59. Thuy Pham, T.P.; Cho, C.W.; Yun, Y.S. Environmental fate and toxicity of ionic liquids: A review. Water Res. 2010, 44, 352–372.
  60. Zhang, L.; Geng, Y.; Duan, W.; Wang, D.; Fu, M.; Wang, X. Ionic liquid-based ultrasoundassisted extraction of fangchinoline and tetrandrine from Stephaniae tetrandrae. J. Sep. Sci. 2009, 32, 3550–3554.
  61. Cao, X.; Ye, X.; Lu, Y.; Yu, Y.; Mo, W. Ionic liquid-based ultrasonic-assisted extraction of piperine from white pepper. Anal. Chim. Acta 2009, 640, 47–51.
  62. Mbous, Y.P.; Hayyan, M.; Hayyan, A.; Wong, W.F.; Hashim, M.A.; Looi, C.Y. Applications of deep eutectic solvents in biotechnology and bioengineering—Promises and challenges. Biotechnol. Adv. 2017, 35, 105–134.
  63. Chemat, F.; Vian, M.A.; Ravi, H.K.; Khadhraoui, B.; Hilali, S.; Perino, S.; Tixier, A.S.F. Review of alternative solvents for green extraction of food and natural products: Panorama, principles, applications and prospects. Molecules 2019, 24, 3007.
  64. Fierascu, R.C.; Fierascu, I.; Avramescu, S.M.; Sieniawska, E. Recovery of natural antioxidants from agro-industrial side streams through advanced extraction techniques. Molecules 2019, 24, 4212.
  65. Skarpalezos, D.; Detsi, A. Deep eutectic solvents as extraction media for valuable flavonoids from natural sources. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4169.
  66. Pan, G.; Yu, G.; Zhu, C.; Qiao, J. Optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of flavonoids compounds (FC) from hawthorn seed (HS). Ultrason. Sonochem. 2012, 19, 486–490.
  67. Sarfarazi, M.; Jafari, S.M.; Rajabzadeh, G.; Feizi, J. Development of an environmentally-friendly solvent-free extraction of saffron bioactives using subcritical water. LWT 2019, 114, 108428.
  68. Fan, R.; Xiang, J.; Li, N.; Jiang, X.; Gao, Y. Impact of extraction parameters on chemical composition and antioxidant activity of bioactive compounds from Chinese licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.) by subcritical water. Sep. Sci. Technol. 2016, 51, 609–621.
  69. Munir, M.T.; Kheirkhah, H.; Baroutian, S.; Quek, S.Y.; Young, B.R. Subcritical water extraction of bioactive compounds from waste onion skin. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 183, 487–494.
  70. Amza, T.; Balla, A.; Tounkara, F.; Man, L.; Zhou, H.M. Effect of hydrolysis time on nutritional, functional and antioxidant properties of protein hydrolysates prepared from gingerbread plum (Neocarya macrophylla) seeds. Int. Food Res. J. 2013, 20, 2081–2090.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
This entry is offline, you can click here to edit this entry!
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback