Algeria is located in the north of Africa (Figure 1), with an area of 2,381,741 km² and a rapidly growing population, which has gone from 25.911 million people in 1990 to 42.008 million people in 2018. Despite this growth, the rural population remains stable; it represented 27.4% of the total population in 2018 [35]. Sahara represents about 85% of the landmass, characterized by an entirely arid climate, with extremely low levels of surface water availability and less than 9% of the total population [36].

Algeria is located in an area considered to be particularly vulnerable to climate change [37,38,39]. A number of studies have reported a future decrease in total annual rainfall by 15–30% [40] and an increase in the desert climate with the loss of the temperate northern zone, which is demonstrated by both an increased temperature and a decrease in precipitation [37,41]. Moreover, in this region, the climate is dry, and most agricultural soils comprise a limited organic matter content of less than 1% coupled with poor soil aggregate structure. The prevalent practices of tilling the land, overgrazing and exposing bare soils have always worsened the situation. The long-term effects are severe degradation of land and ultimately desertification, as observed in several parts of the region [42]. Due to these effects, agriculture production is not stable and presents severe fluctuations. For that reason, more adaptive agriculture with regard to climate change must be implemented, and the use of more advanced technological solutions must be enhanced to limit the climate change effects on agricultural productivity.

Smallholder farmers in Algeria are currently required to raise agricultural production while using fewer resources (such as less energy and more water) and under more constraints (e.g., an increase in temperatures, soil salinity and desertification). A number of CSA practices have been initiated and implemented, such as water saving, construction of dams and hill reservoirs, fight against erosion and desertification, anti-drought programs, protection and rehabilitation of steppe lands and preservation and extension of forests [43,44,45,46,47,48]. Here are some examples of climate-smart innovations in the agricultural, livestock and forestry sectors, financial resources and policy evolution.

 

-

Agricultural practices

During the 1980s, the Biskra region in the southeast of Algeria’s Sahara experienced quick changes in agriculture which resulted in the transformation of the terrain. Production of horticultural crops in greenhouses coupled with the development of irrigated agriculture has resulted in a noticeable agricultural boom [44]. However, water- and land-use efficiency remain very weak, and these problems are exacerbated with: low-cost water which is pumped free, low annual precipitation estimated at <250 mm and an intermittent transfer of greenhouse construction to escape problems with soil-borne diseases [48].

To avoid these problems and to enhance investment and trade in a modern, sustainable horticulture sector, Algeria has collaborated with the Netherlands to realize a practical greenhouse system best suited to the local harsh arid environment. Adaptive greenhouse systems are based on what is called the SmaSH concept of GHI, which stands for smart sustainable horticulture and aims to optimize greenhouse designs to one specific setting, climate conditioning, greenhouse climate control, substrates and nutrition control [49,50,51]. Since then, farmers have widely used this mode of production (using greenhouses) which has allowed them to increase their yields in a very significant way.

Another strategy developed by smallholder farmers, especially in the semi-arid regions of Algeria is the integration of crop–livestock systems (ICLSs). This system is centered around interactions between animal and crop activities which are temporal and spatial [52]. This strategy is considered a conservative farming practice based on minimum mechanical soil disturbance and the permanent cover of soil using crop residues and/or cover crops. This is also coupled with the diversification of crops using a crop rotation system [53]. ICLS practices under conservation agriculture principles have contributed positively to growth yield and the reduced climate vulnerability of farmers, promoted more diverse on-farm crops and reduced market fluctuation vulnerability (in terms of fuel, seeds, feed resources, labor, seeds, etc.) [53,54].

 

-

Forest and cropland regeneration practices

In 1972, the green dam (le barrage vert) was launched to protect watersheds against erosion and manage the use of forests, rangelands and other dryland natural resources in a sustainable way. This project played a key role in adapting and mitigating climate change thus improving the food security and livelihoods of the people in Algeria [55]. From east to west, it extends over a strip of 1000 to 1500 km long and about 20 km wide and over an area of 3000 ha [56]. The project has produced significant positive results such as the replenishment of pastures and species diversification (Atlas pistachio, Acacia, Arizona cypress (Cupressus arizonica), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and Atriplex (Atriplex halimus, A. nummulaira) almond). However, human overexploitation and agricultural expansion caused negative effects [55].

 

-

Practices in the livestock sector

A scientific project was launched in 2018 in collaboration with smallholder farmers to bring together African nations (Algeria and Tunisia) and European nations (Greece) to implement CSA practices through biodiversity restoration and more sustainable livestock establishment [22]. Algerian autochthonous bovine populations resemble the Brown Atlas, and it is segmented into subpopulations, namely Guelmoise, Cheurfa, Krouminiène, Chelifienne, Sétifienne and Djerba. These subpopulations are well adapted to the local harsh arid and semi-arid environment. The size of these populations has been estimated by the “Recensement National des Exploitations Agricoles et d’élevage RGA” [57] at nearly 896,287 subjects. Moreover, these animals are characterized by good rusticity, which represents an essential socio-economic element thus largely contributing to the nourishing of the rural people. However, the introduction of exotic livestock breeds in Algeria has led to a profound mutation in the genetic structure of the dairy animal. This has resulted in a drastic decrease in the local cattle population. Consequently, the proportion of local breeds has decreased from about 82% in 1986 to 48% in 2016 [58].

In northeastern Algeria, local breeds were identified and tracked [11,14]. Products (such as milk and traditional cheese) were researched because consuming milk and its derivatives from these breeds is historically a very old eating practice [59]. The studies found that the products could contribute significantly to the local economies as they could easily be associated with contemporary food trends such as “local” and “slow food” [22]. Results show that among the ecotypes studied, the Sétifen ecotype will be very beneficial for a genetic selection program [11]. Concerning products, a large certification program is underway.

 

-

Water resources management

Farmers in the Algerian Sahara devised a number of techniques to combat the effects of drought, on the one hand, and the pressures on water resources from other sectors such as the extractive industry, on the other hand [25]. A good example is the widespread practice of sustainable use of water in potato crop production in the El Oued region (southeast of Algeria). In this region, an enormous Sub-Saharan Aquifer occurs close to the surface; thus, agriculture has developed on a substantial scale over an area of more than 30,000 hectares of sand used for potato cultivation of two harvests yearly. Currently, the smallholder potato producers (approximately 2000) in El Oued continuously irrigate the potatoes using center-pivot irrigation. These practices have been reported to be unsustainable, and there is room for improvement in terms of water use efficiency, fertilizer and pesticide applications, CO₂ footprint, field layout, the choice of appropriate varieties, the quality of the starting material and prevention of postharvest losses [60].

To avoid these problems, and to make potato production more sustainable, several strategies have been tested on five-hectare demonstration farms. These strategies include smart irrigation using complex scheduling, innovative equipment and precision techniques and the introduction of new (climate-smart) potato varieties. Results show an estimated water saving of more than 50% by introducing underground drip fertigation. Moreover, tuber yields have slightly increased in autumn (9.2 tons/hectare to 11.5 tons/hectare using center-pivot irrigation and subsurface fertigation, respectively). The new potato varieties, i.e., Arizona, Manitou and Rudolph, had better yields than the traditionally used Spunta [45]. Despite being a relatively simple installation, in which planting and installation of driplines can be carried out at the same time, subsurface fertigation is not yet widely used in Algeria, probably due to the current costs of water (fully supported by the authorities), investment costs, knowledge gap on technology and lack of skills to get it running.

 

-

Access to credit and financial resources

For the past 20 years, Algeria has adopted national policies for increasing investment in CSA to provide a fair, stable income and good working conditions to smallholder farmers and to contribute to social equity and rural economies. This policy has been implemented through various national plans, including the National Agricultural Development Program (PNDA: Programme National de Développement Agricole from 2000 to 2010), the Agricultural and Rural Renewal Policy (PRAR: la Politique de Renouveau Agricole et Rural from 2010 to 2014) and the FILAHA Plan from 2014 to 2020.

The PNDA is the most important program which aims to counter the problems arising due to challenges and constraints which are natural, technical, organizational and institutional. These problems have been the cause of weak national food security, degrading natural resources and reducing cohesion and social peace in rural areas. Results from these reforms show a growth rate of total factor productivity which recorded significant annual growth from 1.6% per year over the 1991/2000 period to 6.6% per year over the 2008–2013 period [61].

The impact of CSA practices on smallholder farmers in Algeria is poorly documented when compared to other African nations. Here, we included data collected for Maghreb countries (Tunisia and Morocco) which present similarities in terms of climatic conditions and CSA practices [62,63].

CSA practices using conservation agriculture principles have shown very beneficial results on farmers’ finances. In the region of Sétif (northeastern Algeria), a comparative study of two cropping systems used on 28 farms namely no-till and tilled wheat showed that the no-till system had the best economic results (in terms of the average annual costs and returns per hectare) with a difference in gross margin of 84 USD/ha compared to conventionally tilled wheat. Additionally, no-till was shown to need less labor and fuel, with 241 min/ha and 42 L/ha compared to 624 min/ha and 99 L/ha for conventional tillage [64].

In addition, with regard to the development of crop diversification in Sahara regions in Algeria, palm tree monoculture and tunnel greenhouses have dramatically expanded on the margins of traditional oasis and horticultural production under greenhouses, and the expansion of irrigated agriculture experienced very significant growth [44]. In the city of El Ghrous in the region of Biskra, data collected from a survey of 100 farms specializing in early tomatoes under greenhouses showed the comfortable profitability of this activity. With an average cost price per kilogram of tomato of 26 DZD/kg and an average selling price of 61 DZD/kg, the average gross margin of the producer amounted to 35 DZD/kg, i.e., 57% of the sale price [65].

A study conducted in Morocco in 2013 which covered 21 major wheat-producing provinces (representing 79% of the total number of wheat producers) analyzed the impacts of the conservation agriculture adoption. Results show that the adoption of zero tillage, crop rotation and crop residue retention led to higher yields of 307 kg/ha (35%), higher gross margins of 99 USD/ha (44%) and 23 kg/capita/year (38%) more consumption of wheat relative to the conventional system [66].

Moreover, the non-adoption of CSA strategies by farmers can lead to economic losses. In Tunisia, a study was carried out to assess the overall economic loss caused by the inefficient use of irrigation water. About 724 farms producing the main 20 crops were randomly sampled with respect to the type of farm, bioclimatic area and system of production. Results show that the total direct economic losses of both types of water inefficiencies were valued at around TND 470 million (≈USD 150 million) [67]. Another study, also carried out in Tunisia, evaluated the economic viability of two tree-based adaptation strategies (cactus intercropping and olive tree plantations) in the rangelands of central Tunisia. The results show that whereas rainfed plantations were not at all profitable, the cultivation of irrigated olive trees was advantageous for farmers and society as a whole. Additionally, intercropping with cactus to supplement livestock food and watering was a very effective approach to boost farmers’ revenues without increasing agricultural water consumption [68].

Senegal is a West African country (Figure 1), which covers 196,712 km² and has more than 16,000,000 inhabitants. The main economic activities are livestock production and agriculture, which account for 17.5% of the country’s GDP (gross domestic product). These sectors employ 69% of the country’s population [69].

The agriculture sector is dominated by smallholder farmers who grow millet, sorghum, maize and rice for subsistence purposes [70]. The ecosystems, society and the economy of Senegal are all extremely vulnerable to climatic changes. The main climate challenges to the nation are increasing temperatures and unpredictable precipitation that cause drought, more frequent pluvial flooding and associated health problems [71]. A concerning scenario amid remote regions is made even worse by a raise in the frequency and severity of floods, droughts, cyclones and the increase in sea level. Due to the huge reduction in harvests, water shortages and escalating health challenges brought on by these natural calamities, the populace is becoming increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity [72]. Senegal has experienced eight (8) severe droughts since 1977, with the droughts happening periodically for several decades. Around 800,000 people were reported to have experienced food insecurity as a result of the drought in 2011, which resulted in a 20% drop in grain production and a 31% drop in groundnut production. Most of the affected people relied on agriculture to meet their daily necessities. In addition, Senegal experienced floods frequently, affecting an average of 400,000 to 600,000 people per year, between 1980 and 2008 [73]. Rainfall is the principal determinant of farmers’ activities because more than 70% of the agricultural production is rainfed and irrigation covers less than 5% of all arable farmland [74]. According to the report of some studies, low-input rainfed agriculture will be severely damaged by climate change, with yields for sorghum and millet dropping by about 50% by the year 2080. Depending on the type of crop, high-input rainfed agriculture’s production will decline more gradually, from 2–3% in the 2020s to 15–40% in the 2080s [75].

Since then, many initiatives have been taken by both development partners and the State to enable producers to cope with the effects of climate change. Among these initiatives is the promotion of CSA to improve food security and people’s livelihoods [17]. Senegal has undertaken significant initiatives to encourage resilience through the adoption of climate-smart practices [76]. The nation is making huge strides in creating a political landscape that will strengthen CSA programs [74]. Although the term “climate-smart agriculture” (CSA) may be new for a set of agricultural innovations, tools and policies, the concept is already ingrained in many indigenous practices, tools and methodologies that have assisted farmers in producing food in the face of rapidly changing climatic conditions [17].

In Senegal, good agricultural practices related to CSA have been identified [26,72,77,78,79]. Results from the previously cited literature show that CSA practices can be divided into six groups: agricultural practices, restoration practices of degraded lands, forest and cropland regeneration practices, practices in the livestock sub-sector, water resources and weather and climate information services.

 

-

Agricultural practices

These methods are used by smallholder farmers to mitigate the effects of climate change. These include the adaption strategies used in the agricultural sector to increase productivity [72]. The practices are:

• Erosion control practices;
• Development of stone bunds;
• Stabilizing of gullies by filtering dikes;
• Fixing the dunes;
• Using improved varieties. For the countries of Gambia, Mali, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Ghana and Guinea in particular, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) published 28 climate-resilient high-yielding rice cultivars that are also iron and salinity tolerant [80];
• The application of novel cultivation techniques adapted in farmer field schools (FFS) for the subsequent extension to producers.

 

-

Conservation agriculture

It is also recognized that land degradation reduces the productive capacities of cultivated soils [81]. The use of CSA is driven by increased degradation of soil in West Africa, especially in the dry and semi-arid regions, where crop yields are relatively low due to low soil organic matter, insufficient fertilizer use and frequent droughts [82]. The main practices used in Senegal are composting, the organic manure technique and the manure pit, Zaï, desalination of mangrove rice fields and restoration of salty soils [72].

 

-

Forest and cropland regeneration practices

Some practices have also been promoted by researchers and are related to the regeneration practices of forests and cultivated lands and the integrated management of water resources. Farmers used: assisted natural regeneration (ANR); agroforestry; defending; crops of recession; and use of neem pesticides. A total of 11 million Faidherbia albida trees were reported to have been planted on 27,000 acres of degraded land in the Kaffrine region of Senegal [19].

 

-

Practices in the livestock sector

To combat the effect of climate change, breeders in the livestock sector currently employ the following strategies: practice of haymaking; treatment of straw with urea; agricultural pastoralism; and pastoralism. Livestock keepers are reportedly likely to be impacted by a drop in the availability of animal feed and water, changes in the severity and distribution of pests and illnesses that affect both livestock and pasture and smallholders’ mixed crop–livestock systems [83,84].

 

-

Water resources management

According to long-term observational data and climate projections, freshwater resources are vulnerable to climate change and may be significantly influenced, with significant consequences for Senegal’s human communities and ecosystems [85]. When that happens, managing water resources becomes a prerequisite to coping with the effects of climate change. All efforts taken to promote effective and efficient management of water for profitable agriculture are considered water resources: construction of anti-salt dikes and stormwater retention; practice of micro-irrigation; storage of runoff by micro retention; rainwater harvesting; and integrated management of water resources.

 

-

Weather and Climate Information Services (WCIS)

Improved weather and climate information services (WCIS), or the packaging and distribution of downsized and useful weather and climate information (WCI) that satisfies end users’ needs, have received a lot of attention in recent years [86,87,88,89,90,91]. Particularly in Senegal, several studies have shown that the use of WCIS has become very popular among farmers, fishermen and livestock breeders in recent years [17,70,92,93,94]. Millions of Senegalese farmers have been receiving simplistic forecasts since 2011 as part of climate information services. The National Weather Agency has been empowered by partners such as the USAID, CCAFS/ICRISAT, WFP FAO, etc., to develop climate information for producers, breeders and fishermen. More specifically in the field of agriculture, consultations and meetings have been organized before to identify the needs for climate information with the different categories of users. The National Meteorological Service (ANACIM) then started producing tailored climate information. To ensure proper understanding and better use of CIS, training sessions were organized with producers to share with them the content of the messages transferred but also the likely decisions for each type of information received. Partners responsible for disseminating climate information (community radio stations, private companies, etc.) have also been trained to better convey information [5,70,95]. The forecast data offered include the total amounts of rainfall, the beginning and end of the rainy season, as well as a 10-day prognosis for the duration of the rainy season [5]. Farmers are better prepared to deal with global climatic change by receiving pertinent and understandable climate information [24]. Documented evidence from Ghana and Senegal reported a great potential in improving the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to climate variability and extreme weather events [96].

Moreover, ANACIM formed Multidisciplinary Working Groups (the Multidisciplinary Working Group (MWG) was an initiative of the Agro-Hydro-Meteorology (Agrhymet for the Sahel) national committee. More than 27 MWGs have been created in Senegal. Members of MWGs include all relevant state extension technical services and relevant local organizations within the districts. The mission of the MWG is to ensure the close monitoring of the climate phenomena and to alert timely, competent structures in order to prevent potential risks. They receive meteorological information such as the seasonal, weekly and instant forecasts from the meteorological office and tailor the information using the updates from the actual ground reality with regard to the areas of competency of each participating service. They meet three times a month during the cropping season to discuss and take action for better planning of the farming activities within the district for the next 10-day period. Each MWG should have a legal status and be led by the prefect of the district [71]) (MWGs) in partnership with other technical services (agriculture, livestock and environment) for the dissemination of WCIS to farmers. The MWGs served as a forum for interaction where meteorologists and stakeholders from other industries, including agriculture and water, could work together to develop early warning information [97].

Additionally, “Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA)”, a new strategy for expanding climate information services, has been launched. Using historical climate records, participatory decision-making tools and seasonal climate forecasts, this method helps farmers identify and better plan livelihood options suitable to their circumstances and climatic conditions [98]. Together with local government extension officers, the Senegalese Institute for Agricultural Research (ISRA) and CGIAR World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) adopted this strategy.

Furthermore, crop insurance has received extensive partner promotion and has emerged as a promising risk transfer tool. However, caution is advised about its integration into a more comprehensive risk management strategy. The viability of pricing agricultural insurance products in Senegal at rates that are both affordable to impoverished farmers and profitable for insurance providers, without the need for significant, ongoing subsidies by the government or outside donors, is a particular challenge that deserves to be explored in the upcoming years [72].

The analysis points out opportunities to create the political will to build an environment that is conducive to the widespread adoption of CSA. The analysis identifies prospects to create and channel CSA needs from the perspective of public opinion [76].

In this section, we provide evidence from the literature regarding the effects of CSA use in agricultural production. However, Senegal continues to have a relatively low adoption rate for climate-smart behaviors and technologies [99]. Researchers have criticized the linear approach for its dominance in knowledge generation and its restrictive perspective of innovation, but it is nevertheless used in many programs and organizations [77].

Regarding forest and cropland regeneration practices, a study involving 1080 households in the Sudano-Sahelian ecozones of Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali and Senegal’s Sahelian revealed that farmer-managed natural regeneration can be a crucial safety net for farmers in the event of crop yield and livestock underperformance brought on by climate variability. The study reported that by planting and maintaining multipurpose trees on farmlands, a community of 1000 households may improve its income by USD 72,000 [100]. Nyasimi, Amwata, Hove, Kinyangi and Wamukoya [19] showed that trees provide a source of fuel and feed and that replanting has decreased the amount of time women spend gathering firewood from 2.5 h per day to 0.5 h today. In addition, the tension between farmers and herders has been reduced by 80% as a result of regreening the land.

Moreover, with regard to weather and climate services, a study carried out by Diouf, Ouedraogo, Ouedraogo, Ablouka and Zougmoré [93] showed that the adoption of seasonal forecasts (SF) has a considerable impact on Senegalese farmers’ ability to produce their principal crops and earn a living from farming. Depending on the type and sex of the crops, this effect varies. For millet and rice crops, the users (men and women) of the seasonal prediction gained an average of 158 kg/ha and 140 kg/ha, respectively, more yield than the non-users. Men are more affected by the application of SF on rice (321.33 kg/ha vs. −25.3 kg/ha) and millet (202.7 kg/ha vs. 16.7 kg/ha). The rise in agricultural production was the most notable result of improved seasonal forecasts for farmers in Senegal [101]. The initiative developed test farms that rigorously followed forecasts and related agricultural recommendations and matched them to control farms employing conventional techniques to test yield increases. Similar information was provided for groundnut flowers and souna, demonstrating increases in yields of 50% and 15%, respectively [24]. Seasonal predictions were being distributed to 7.4 million rural Senegalese as of August 2015 using 102 rural community radio stations and short messaging services (SMS) [92]. Climate data are now regarded as agricultural inputs in Senegal, alongside the fundamental production inputs of seeds, fertilizer and machinery [70]. According to an impact assessment study, the use of CIS in Senegal increased household income by between 10% and 25% [96].

The usage of weather and climate information services, particularly seasonal forecasts, has been found to alter farmers’ attitudes and strategies, according to some authors, including Hassan and Nhemachena [97] and Ingram et al. [102]. Additionally, Chiputwa, Wainaina, Nakelse, Makui, Zougmoré, Ndiaye and Minang [94] researched the effects of the Multidisciplinary Working Group in Senegal. Results show that depending on the type of information provided, MWGs are positively related to farmers’ awareness, access to and adoption of WCI, leading to farm management responses. Farmers’ knowledge of WCI normally rises by 18%, their access improves by 12%, and their adoption rises by 10% when MWGs are present.

Furthermore, a study conducted by Bonilla-Findji et al. [103] discovered that although 159 male and 110 female farmers adopted the CSA techniques promoted in Kaffrine, the adoption rate was lower for households headed by women than for those headed by men. Higher acceptance rates for agroforestry and reduced tillage were reported (70%), medium adoption levels for manure (40%), organic matter plus micro-dose of artificial fertilizers and FMNR (about 23%) and low acceptance rates (15%) for micro-dose (NPK plus urea) and drought-tolerant varieties. Approximately 90% of farmers who adopted CSA techniques reported positive results in terms of providing substantial incomes, trying to improve food access and diversity, enhancing climate resilience and not increasing agricultural labor time. From 8 to 88%, different CSA practices and gender differences were assessed to impact yield improvement.

Evidence suggests that PICSA specifically encouraged farmers to consider and then implement a number of innovations, such as (i) adjusting the timing of activities such as sowing dates, (ii) implementing soil and water management practices, (iii) choosing crop varieties, (iv) managing fertilizer and (v) adapting their season plans (farm size, etc.) to the actual resources available to them [98].

Located in West Africa at latitudes 6°30′ and 12°30′ north and meridian 1° and 30°40′ east, it is in the tropical region between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer (Figure 1). Africa’s coastline developing nation of Benin is subjected to the harmful consequences of climate change [104]. Significant disturbances have been a feature of climate change since the 1960s. In the same way, future predictions have been made on increased drought, late and violent rains, floods and temperature rise. By 2100, the temperature is expected to rise by +2.6 to +3.2 °C. In addition, rainfall in the southern part of the country will continue to be higher (+0.2%), but it will decrease by 13–15% in the northern part of the country by 2100 [105,106,107]. Without taking any action to adapt to climate change, agricultural productivity will suffer more under these scenarios and is predicted to fall by 5 to 20% by 2025 [108,109]. Since 80% of the population relies on agriculture for livelihood, this will have a negative effect on their quality of life [110].