Chitosan is established as a non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible compound. It offers fascinating properties; antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, bio-adhesion, adsorption enhancer, etc. Chitosan coupled with nanotechnology could offer a sustainable alternative to the use of conventional agrochemicals towards a safer agriculture industry.
Nanoformulations, Molecular Weight (MW), Deacetylation Degree and Final pH of the Product |
Plant and Application Type |
Average Size * and Zeta Potential |
Findings |
Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nano-chitosan, 600 kDa, 85%, pH 6.0 |
Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora), foliar spray |
420, 750 and 970 nm c |
Increase chlorophyll content (30–50%), enhance nutrient uptake (10–27% N, 17–30% P, 30–45% K) and photosynthesis rate (30%). |
[29] |
Nano-chitosan, 110 kDa, 85%–90%, pH 4.0 |
Chilli (Capsicum annuum), seed treatment |
163 nm a, +60.4 mV |
Enhance in total root and leaf fresh mass up to 77% and 28%, respectively upon application of 1 mg/L of nano-chitosan. The increase of leaf catalase (33%) and peroxidase activities (23%) also been observed. |
[30] |
Nano-chitosan, 100–399 kDa, |
Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), seed treatment |
46 nm a |
Promote seed germination (123% after 72 h) and radical length (231% after 72 h) under salinity stress. |
[31] |
Nano-chitosan, pH 7.0–9.0 |
Maize (Zea mays), seed treatment |
80–100 nm d |
Promote seed germination (37%), plant height (1.5-fold increase) and leaf area (2-fold increase). |
[32] |
Nano-chitosan, pH 4.8 |
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum), seed treatment |
10–30 nm b, −37 mV |
Enhance germination (100%), seedling vigor index (57%) and vegetative biomass of seedlings (3-fold). |
[33] |
Chitosan-polymethacrylic acid-NPK nanoparticles |
Wheat (Triticumaestivum), foliar spray |
26 and 31 nm b |
Enhance harvest index (24%), crop yield (59%), and mobilization index (42%). |
[34] |
20 nm b |
Enhance polysaccharides (10%) and total saccharides (11%). |
[35] |
||
French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), foliar spray |
20 nm b |
Enhance plant growth, nutrient uptake, and biomass accumulation. The nanoformulations was found on the leaf phloem via HRTEM image |
[36] |
|
Pea (Pisum sativum), seed treatment |
20 nm b |
Induce mitotic cell division (1.5 fold) and enhance of total soluble protein (i.e., legumin β, vicilin 1, 2 and 3, and convicilin) |
[37] |
|
Chitosan-Cu nanoparticles, low MW, 80% |
Maize (Surya local), seed treatment |
150 nm b, +22.6 mV |
Increase α-amylase and protease activity as well as promote seedling growth. |
[38] |
Chitosan-Cu nanoparticles, 50–190 kDa, 80% |
Maize (Zea mays), foliar spray |
361 nm a,+22.1 mV |
pH-responsive sustained release of Cu was obtained. Promote seedling growth (significant increase in plant height, stem diameter, and root length). |
[21] |
Chitosan-Zn nanoparticles, 60 kDa, 85% |
Wheat (Triticum durum), foliar spray |
325 nm a, +42.3 mV |
Stomatal localization of nanoparticles was observed. Increase grain zinc content by up to 42%. |
[22] |
Chitosan-γ-polyglutamic acid-gibberellic acid nanoparticles, 290 kDa, 75%–85%, pH 4.5 |
French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), seed treatment |
134 nm a, −29.0 mV |
61% of the encapsulation efficiency of hormone in the nanoformulation. Offer sustained-release with 58% after 48 h. Exhibited high biological activity with 50–70% enhance of seed germination, leaf area, and root development compared to counterpart. |
[39] |
Chitosan-gibberellic acid nanoparticles, 27 kDa, 75%–85%, pH 4.5 |
French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), seed treatment |
450 nm a, +27.0 mV |
90% of the encapsulation efficiency of hormone in the nanoformulation. Offer stability up to 60 days with pH and temperature-controlled release mechanism. Upon treatment, the seedlings showed an increase of leaf area, chlorophyll and carotenoids amount. |
[40] |
Chitosan-thiamine nanoparticles, 27 kDa, 85% |
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum), seed treatment |
596 nm a, +37.7 mV |
99% of the encapsulation efficiency of hormone in the nanoformulation. Enhance seeds germination and induce more defense enzymes (peroxidase, glucanase, chitinase, polyphenol oxidase, protease, and chitosanase activity) and increase 10-fold auxins level compared to the untreated seeds. |
[41] |
Plant Pathogen |
Nanoformulations, Average Size *, Zeta Potential and its Application |
In Vitro/In Vivo |
Findings |
Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Alternaria solani, Fusarium oxysporum, and Pyricularia grisea, |
Nano-CS, 10-30 nm b, –37 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro |
High inhibition on mycelial growth with the percentage of inhibition rate recorded at 92%, 87%, and 72% for P. grisea, F. oxysporum and A. solani, respectively. |
[33] |
Aphis gossypii |
CS-polyacrylic acid nanoparticles, 50 nm a (insecticides) |
In vivo, reared on castor leaves |
The mean number of eggs/females reduce significantly under the laboratory conditions and field conditions with 76% and 61%, respectively. |
[42] |
Callosobruchus chinensis |
In vivo, reared on castor leaves |
The mean number of eggs/females reduce significantly under the laboratory conditions and store conditions with 74% and 70%, respectively. |
[42] |
|
Callosobruchus maculatus: |
In vivo, reared on soybean |
The mean number of eggs/females reduce significantly under the laboratory condition and store condition with 84% and 74%, respectively. |
[42] |
|
Colletotrichum Gloeosporioides and Alternaria spp. |
Nano-CS, 406 nm a, –4.9 to –7.9 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro |
Higher inhibition on mycelial (up to 82%) and sporulation of fungus, compared to the counterpart. Enhance seeds germination. |
[43] |
Curvularia lunata |
CS-Cu nanoparticles, 361 nm a, +22.1 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro and In vivo (Maize, Zea mays) |
Induce more defense response: 1.5–2 fold of peroxidase, a significant amount of superoxide dismutase, 2–3 fold of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, and a significant amount of polyphenol oxidase. |
[21] |
Fusarium oxysporum |
CS-CuO, 350 nm b, –26.8 mV; CS-ZnO, 441 nm b, –24.5 mV; and CS-Ag, 348 nm b, –49.1 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro and In vivo (chickpea, Cicer arietinum) |
In vitro results showed that the antifungal activity follows: CS-ZnO > CS-CuO > CS-Ag, while in vivo results showed that the wilt disease reduction follows: CS-CuO (47%) > CS-ZnO (40%) > CS-Ag (33%). |
[44] |
Fusarium graminearum |
Nano-CS, 181 nm a, +45.6 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro and in vivo (wheat) |
85% inhibition of mycelial growth in plate treated with 5000 mg/mL of CS nanoparticles (in vitro) and 53% reduction in disease severity on wheat (in vivo). Deformation and dehydration of fungus mycelial growth also can be seen. |
[45] |
Nano-CS, [1] 181 nm a, +45.6 mV; [2] 310 nma, +33.2 mV; [3] 340 nm a, +21.7 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro and in vivo (wheat) |
Inhibition rate (%) at 1000 mg/mL follows: (1) Nano-CS (71.1%) > (3) Nano-CS (17.7%) > (2) Nano-CS (14.1%) |
[46] |
|
CS-Cu nanoparticles, 220 nm a, +40.0 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro |
Minimum inhibitory concentration after one week incubation follows: Cu (250 µg/mL) > CS-Cu nanoparticles (17.5 mg/mL) > chitosan (10 mg/mL). |
[47] |
|
Fusarium verticillioids |
CS-Cu nanoparticles, 296 nm a, +19.6 mV (fungicides) |
In vivo (Maize, Zea mays) |
At 4 and 8 h after treatment, the disease has been reduced by 48% and 50%, respectively. |
[48] |
Pyricularia grisea |
Nano-CS, 83 nm a, –28.0 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro and In vivo (rice, Oryza sativa) |
No inhibitory activity was observed in the in vitro. However, in vivo results revealed its ability in suppressing the disease with zero percent disease incidence at 10 days after infection, where 100% disease incidence was observed in control. |
[49] |
In vitro and In vivo (finger millet, Eleusine coracana) |
In the in vitro evaluation, 65% of radial growth inhibition was obtained. Meanwhile, delayed disease symptom (25 days) and low disease infection (23%) was observed in the in vivo evaluation, while for control, the symptoms started appear in 15 days and 100% disease infection was recorded. Enhance in peroxidase activity level (reached maximum on day 50) also been observed. |
[50] |
||
CS-Cu nanoparticles, 88 nm a, –29.0 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro and In vivo (finger millet, Eleusine coracana) |
Induce resistance against the pathogen attack: a 2-fold increase in chitinase and chitosanase and produce more protease inhibitors, peroxidase, β-1,3 glucanase, and polyphenol oxidase compared to the untreated plant. |
[51] |
|
Pyricularia oryzae |
Nano-CS, 28 nm b, +49.0 to +53.0 mV and CS-protocatechuic acid, 33 nm b, +11.0 mV (fungicides) |
In vitro |
The diameter of inhibition zone follows: CS-protocatechuic acid nanoparticles > protocatechuic acid > chitosan nanoparticles. Up to a 3-fold increase of the inhibition zone compared to the counterpart. |
[52] |
Verticillium dahliae |
Nano-oleoyl-CS, 297 nm c (fungicides) |
In vitro |
The nanoparticles internalized the fungal cell, hence leads to the deformation of spore and hyphae, thickened cell walls, cease of organelles and cytoplasmic vacuolation. |
[53] |
Agrochemicals Type and Its Active Ingredient |
Nanocarrier Formulations, Loading Content % (LC), Loading Efficiency % (LE), Encapsulation Efficiency % (EE), and its Average Size * |
Plant Pathogen |
In Vitro/In Vivo |
Findings |
Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fungicide, Dazomet |
CS nanoparticles, [1] 276 nm b, 28% (LC), 78% (EE); [2] 32 nm b, 48% (LC), 98% (EE); [3] 31 nm b, 35% (LC), 85% (EE); [4] 7 nm b, 33% (LC), 83% (EE) |
Ganoderma boninense |
In vitro |
Controlled release with saturation release of 97.9% and half release time (t1/2) of 11 h at pH 5.5. Increase fungicidal activity up to 30-fold compared to their counterparts. |
[24] |
Fungicides, Hexaconazole and Dazomet |
CS nanoparticles, [1] 157 nm b, 17% (LC), 67% (EE); [2] 58 nm b, 17% (LC), 67% (EE); [3] 31 nm b, 17% (LC), 67% (EE); [4] 5 nm b, 13% (LC), 64% (EE) |
Ganoderma boninense |
In vitro |
Controlled release with half release time (t1/2) up to 66 and 19 h for hexaconazole and dazomet, respectively, at pH 5.5. Increase fungicidal activity up to 40-fold compared to their counterparts. |
[25] |
Fungicide, Hexaconazole |
CS nanoparticles, 100 nm b, 73% (EE) |
Rhizoctonia solani |
In vitro |
Controlled release with prolongs the release time of hexaconazole up to 14 days at pH 8.3 while the conventional pesticides only last up to 5 days. Significant higher antifungal activity compared to the conventional counterpart. |
[57] |
Fungicide, Hexaconazole |
CS nanoparticles, [1] 272 nm b, 11% (LC), 56% (EE); [2] 169 nm b, 17% (LC), 67% (EE); [3] 32 nm b, 15% (LC), 65% (EE); [4] 18 nm b, 15% (LC), 65% (EE) |
Ganoderma boninense |
In vitro |
Controlled release with saturation release of 99.9% and half release time (t1/2) of 42 h at pH 5.5. Increase fungicidal activity up to 3-fold compared to their counterparts. |
[23] |
Fungicide, Pyraclostrobin |
CS-lactide nanoparticles, [1] 128 nm a, 18% (LC), 45% (EE); [2] 90 nm a, 11% (LC), 85% (EE); [3] 77 nm a, 2% (LC), 91% (EE); |
Colletotrichum gossypii |
In vitro |
Better stability of AI under light stress with 81% compared to the counterpart with 41%. Controlled release (75%) of AI up to 10 h at pH 8.3. High fungicidal activity with up to 85% inhibition rate at day 7 of incubation. |
[58] |
Fungicide, Pyraclostrobin |
Quarternized CS-silica nanoparticles, 110 nm b, 27%–42% (LC) |
Phomopsis asparagi |
In vitro |
Controlled release (72%) with prolongs release time up to 13 h. Inhibition percentage of fungi up to 95% |
[55] |
Fungicides, Tricyclazole and Hexaconazole |
CS-Ag nanoparticles, 17 nm b |
Pyricularia oryzae |
In vitro |
Significantly increased the inhibition zone by 2-fold compared to the counterpart |
[59] |
Fungicide, Avermectin |
CS-lanthanum-nanoparticles, 333 nm a, 46% (LE), 65% (EE) |
Magnaporthe grisea |
In vitro and In vivo |
Rapid release on the first 36 h followed by sustained release until day-10. No inhibitory of fungus was observed in the in vitro study. However, significant disease reduction was observed in the in vivo study (Rice, Oryza sativa). |
[60] |
Fungicide, Tebuconazole |
CS-porphyrinic-pectin nanoparticles, 100 nm c, 30% (LE) |
Xanthomonas campestris, Pseudomonas syringae, and Alternaria alternate |
In vitro |
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) capsule comprise of chitosan, porous porhpyrinic, and pectin demonstrated a stimuli-responsive sustained release of AI with prolonged-release time up to 174 h at pH 7. The nanocapsule exhibited high antimicrobials activities and no phytotoxic effect on Chinese cabbage. |
[61] |
Herbicides, Imazapic, and Imazapyr |
CS-alginate nanoparticles, 378 nm a, 62% (EE) of imazapic, 71% (EE) of imazapyr;CS-tripolyphosphate nanoparticles, 479 nm a, 59% (EE) of imazapic, 70% (EE) of imazapyr |
Bidens pilosa |
In vivo |
After 300 min under gentle agitation, 30% (imazapic) and 20% (imazapyr) were released in CS-alginate nanoparticles, while 59% (imazapic) and 9% (imazapyr) were released in CS-tripolyphosphate nanoparticles. Meanwhile, free imazapic and imazapyr were released up to 55% and 97%, respectively, hence, showing the slow-release formulation of the nanoparticulate system. The encapsulation of herbicides also reduced the toxicity of herbicides against the nontarget organism while maintaining its herbicidal activity on the tested weeds. |
[62] |
Herbicide, Paraquat |
CS-Ag nanoparticles, 100 nm c, 90% (EE) |
Eichhornia crassipes |
In vivo |
Improved herbicidal activity on the tested weed with a 90% release of paraquat was observed for up to 24 h. Improved the microbial population, bacteria, and yeast compared to its free herbicide. |
[63] |
Nematicide, Avermectin |
CS-γ-polyglutamic acid nanoparticles, 61 and 56 nm b, 31% (LC), 35% (EE) |
Caenorhabditis elegans |
In vitro |
The controlled release rate governed by pH. The mortality rate of nematodes was significantly increased by 29%, compared to its counterpart. |
[64] |
*,a hydrodynamic mean size, b high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) mean diameter size and c field emission electron microscopy (FESEM) diameter size.
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules25071611