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Transportation Science & Technology
Recently, due to the industrial and e-commerce revolution, the freight transport sector has grown rapidly and has become one of the key factors for economic development. Coupled with the growth of this sector, significant energy and environmental problems have arisen. Therefore, a huge effort has been made around the world in order to develop some solutions that could mitigate these problems. One of these promising solutions is electrifying the urban freight transport sector including the trucks and freight commercial vehicles fleets. In Palestine, as in other developing countries, the implications of this solution are still unquantified and the efficiency of the application is unpredicted. Therefore, this has necessitated a comprehensive study that considers all the relevant factors, such as the source of the electricity (renewable energy, oils, natural gas, etc.), fuel rates, and electricity rates.
- sustainability
- sustainable urban freight transport
- electric trucks
- sustainability in Palestine
- Westbank Palestine
- truck electrification
- environmental impacts
1. Introduction
During the last four decades, transportation systems have significantly contributed to the socio-economic development of countries around the world, and the extensive global road network serves a key role in the facilitation of moving people and goods. Freight transport by trucking has been the backbone of the industrial revolution by facilitating access to raw materials and goods, comprising the main distribution channels of export and import. However, the freight and passenger transport sector has been considered as one of the main key roles of industrial and economic development, but it is also one of the main carbon dioxide (CO2) pollutant source and, more specifically, it is responsible for nearly a quarter of the global CO2 emissions [1]. For example, in 2017, the transport sector was responsible for about 27% of the European Union’s (EU) total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and light commercial vehicles produced around 9% of the transport GHG emissions [2]. Whereas, in 2019, in China, the nitric oxide (NOx) emissions of heavy-duty trucks made up more than 74% of the total vehicle emissions, and their particulate matter (PM) emissions exceeded 52.4% of total vehicle emissions [3].
Freight and passenger transport sectors, which were responsible for 19% of the total global energy consumption in 2013, have been considered major energy consumers. These sectors are expected to account for 97% of the increasing amount in total fossil fuel consumption between 2013 and 2030. Due to the huge amounts of energy consumption and GHG emissions of the transport sector, especially the freight trucking modes, which produce emissions per unit much higher than private and passenger vehicles, several environmental and socio-economic problems have arisen. Therefore, reducing fuel consumption in this sector has become one of the highest priorities for all countries around the world [4].
Transport electrification is one of the promising solutions with the greatest potential for the sustainability of transport systems. Transport electrification covers a wide range of modes and processes, including battery electric vehicles (BEVs), fuel cell-powered vehicles and hybrid vehicles, which are typically composed of one of the mentioned technologies combined with conventional internal combustion engines [5].
During the last decade, electric vehicles (EVs) have been increasing their market penetration, and the passenger cars category has attracted most of the user’s attention, offering a greater number of models from various manufacturers. Similar to passenger cars, the commercial vehicles category has shown an increasing trend in terms of newly registered vehicles [2]. In Norway, an ambitious transport plan has been set for the introduction of zero-emission commercial freight vehicles to fulfil CO2 reduction objectives by 2030. By applying this plan, in 2025, all new lighter vans are expected to be zero-emission vehicles. By 2030, all new heavy vans and 50% of new heavy freight vehicles are expected to be zero-emission [6].
Despite the high ownership cost of electric freight vehicles and trucks, the expected saving in the operating cost and GHG emissions is relatively significant over time based on the region. The indirect CO2 emissions from commercial vehicles and trucks vary significantly among regions, based on the source of electricity. However, commercial vehicles powered by hydropower-based electricity could significantly decrease CO2 emissions. Vehicles powered by coal-based electricity could increase CO2 emissions by 7.3 percent, compared to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) [7]. Furthermore, the U.S Department of Energy has expected a decrease in the battery pack cost, so the expected new cost will be around $125/kWh in the short term and about $100/kWh in the long term [8], and this could decrease the ownership cost of the commercial vehicles and trucks significantly.
In Palestine, electric freight commercial vehicles have penetrated the market two years ago. Electric trucking, which is a very promising freight transport mode, is expected to penetrate the market very soon. Therefore, there is an urgent need to determine the expected economic and environmental implications of using electric trucks and freight commercial vehicles, which is highly required for setting future transportation plans and policies. For this purpose, this study has been conducted in Westbank, Palestine, which is composed of 11 main cities, and the expected economic and environmental implications of using electric trucks and freight commercial vehicles during the next 10 years have been determined based on the relevant factors such as source of the electricity (renewable energy, coal, natural gas, etc.), fuel rate, and electricity rate.
2. Literature Review
Although several vehicle manufacturers have intended to start producing electric trucks during the last decade, few of these manufacturers have recently opened sales for different series of heavy electric trucks, like Volvo. The majority of the manufacturers have focused on producing electric freight commercial vehicles. Thus, very few studies have addressed the economic and environmental implications of using electric trucks and freight commercial vehicles around the world.
One of these studies has been conducted in Norway by Hovi et al. [6]. The study has investigated the experiences with electric trucks, focusing on various performance aspects such as technology, costs of ownership, and socio-economic costs compared to internal combustion engine trucks. The study has shown that the results of the experiences have been positive. Moreover, electric trucks could replace internal combustion engine trucks to a specific extent. Based on costs, the electric truck market could compete with the internal combustion engine trucks when technology reaches mass production.
In Switzerland and Finland, a study has been conducted by Liimatainen et al. [9] in order to develop a new methodology for estimating the potential of electric trucks. The continuous road freight survey data have been analyzed. The results of the study have indicated that in both countries the potential of electric trucks varies widely between commodities. More specifically, medium-duty rigid trucks have been expected to have a high potential for electrification. Moreover, electric trucks lead to an increase in electricity consumption by around 1–3%, which in turn, leads to a large impact on the electricity grid stations and logistics centers.
In China, a study has been conducted by Song et al. [10] in order to develop a method for extending the battery working time of electric refrigerated trucks. For this purpose, a simulation of the working conditions of these trucks has been performed for a whole day, and a genetic algorithm has been used to optimize the operating parameters of the trucks. The results of the study have indicated that after optimization, the total expected energy consumption of trucks could be reduced by 0.5 kW, and as a result, the operating cost will be reduced as well.
Another study has been conducted in China by Sun et al. [11] in order to determine the economic implications of using urban electric commercial vehicles. The study has used real-world driving cycle data in order to simulate the electric consumption of freight commercial vehicles. Different operating parameters have been selected, including, transmission, vehicle body, batteries, and tires. The collected data have been analyzed using Advanced Vehicle Simulator Software. By combining both the optimization range of the parameters and coefficients of electricity saving, the results have shown a promising economic benefit.
In France, a novel methodology for reducing the total cost of plug-in hybrid electric truck ownership has been introduced by a study conducted by Huin et al. [12]. In this study, the best powertrain component sizes have been determined with optimal energy management, and a cost model of the truck has been developed by considering the variation in costs between conventional diesel trucks and electric trucks. The results of the study have expected a reduction in operating costs by 38%. Whereas, the expected reduction in CO2 has been about 38% compared to conventional diesel trucks.
An economic feasibility study for using electric trucks has been conducted in the United States by Vijayagopal and Rousseau [8]. The study has determined the total ownership cost for medium and heavy-duty electric trucks with respect to the cost of fuels and batteries. The results of this study have concluded that the light HD trucks had the highest economic benefits. Whereas, the class 8 long haul trucks had the lowest economic benefits in the case of truck electrification. In Sicily, Italy, a study conducted by Pinchasik et al. [6] investigated the use of electric vehicles in freight distribution. The study has addressed the integration of electric commercial vehicles in logistics systems. The results have indicated that the use of aluminum for producing electric vehicles has made it possible to decrease frames’ overall weight, which allows installing an additional upper body. Moreover, the batteries made from lithium polymers lead to a nominal range compared to their segment.
A study by Iwan et al. [13] investigated the potential for the implementation and development of electric vehicles in city logistics, based on the activities recognized by the Electric urban freight and logistics (EUFAL) project, realized under the ERA-NET Cofund Electric Mobility Europe. The study indicated that 72% of participating fleet operators considered electric vans and trucks viable alternatives to their combustion engine vans and trucks.
An innovative approach to estimate the baseline values for a set of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) in the Electro-Mobility Sector was introduced by Silvestri et al. [14] The proposed approach makes use of data retrieved from different suitable sources, such as surveys, questionnaires, etc.
In Rome, Italy, a study by Carrese et al. [15] introduced an aggregate approach to the freight system, transport demand and supply, to support the design of a distribution system based on electric vehicles using an accessibility indicator that considers the supply of facilities, vehicle performances, and freight demand patterns.
Generally, many studies have been conducted around the world, especially in Europe and China in order to investigate the expected implications of using electric freight transport modes. Some of these studies addressed the electric commercial freight vehicles, while other studies focused on the electric light and heavy-duty trucks, based on the sources of electricity in each of these regions.
In Palestine, no studies have investigated electrifying freight transport such as trucks and freight commercial vehicles, since this market is still very emerging. Therefore, it is highly required to quantify the expected implications of using these modes of transport based on the relevant factors, so that the results can be used for setting the long-term transport strategies.
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/en15114058
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