You're using an outdated browser. Please upgrade to a modern browser for the best experience.
Potential Veterinary and Pharmacological Uses: History
View Latest Version
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Subjects: Veterinary Sciences
Contributor: José Vallejo

Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) is a scientific discipline that focuses on people’s knowledge of animal diseases and their control, practices, and remedies for the treatment and prevention of animal diseases. However, Spanish EVM is not only based on the use of herbal remedies. As in other parts of the world, different animal body parts, secretions, and derivative products have traditionally been used for veterinary purposes. 

  • human being
  • ethnozoology
  • zootherapy
  • veterinary practices

1. Urine

Human urine is composed primarily of water (95%). The rest is urea (2%), creatinine (0.1%), uric acid (0.03%), chloride, sodium, potassium, sulphate, ammonium, phosphate, and other ions and molecules in lesser amounts. Protein is only found in trace amounts compared to their values in blood plasma [1][2].
It is important to note that the ammonia excreted in urine promotes acid excretion, so it seems that the existence of this substance in urine instinctively led to its use as a pharmacological element, particularly in dermatology [3]. Recent work currently confirms the activity of human urine in wound healing in rats compared with an antiseptic agent. The study concludes that human urine has significant wound healing activity in the excision, incision, burn, and dead space wound model [4]. In the same way, research using urine stem-cell-based therapy is encouraged as an innovative strategy for accelerating wound closure and promoting angiogenesis. In fact, human urine-derived stem cells, together with polycaprolactone/gelatin, have now been proven to be effective in the healing of full-thickness skin wounds in rabbits [5].

2. Menstrual Fluid

Menstrual fluid contains blood, cells from the lining of the uterus (endometrial cells), and mucus. It is important to note that it is a unique body fluid that contains mesenchymal stem cells. This fact is of great relevance for its therapeutic applications, derived from its biological activity, in the clinic for certain diseases and as an excellent tool for regenerative medicine, as it has been used successfully in cartilage regeneration [6]. In addition, studies have shown evidence of this product improving skin regeneration processes in vivo and in wound healing [7][8], offering excellent prospects for skin repair in difficult-to-heal conditions [8]. On the other hand, it has also been shown that the interaction of menstrual-blood-derived stem cells (MenSCs) with an inflammatory environment could enhance their beneficial properties [7]. In summary, there are very good pharmacological prospects and potentialities in MenSCs, which are gradually being described in the scientific literature; Chen and colleagues [9] review the therapeutic effects of MenSCs on a good number of conditions, including liver disease, diabetes, stroke, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, ovarian-related disease, myocardial infarction, Asherman syndrome, Alzheimer’s disease, acute lung injury, cutaneous wounds, endometriosis, and neurodegenerative diseases.

3. Saliva

Human saliva mainly consists of water (99%) and it is rich in antimicrobial compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, lactoferrin, and lysozymes. However, the most relevant antimicrobial components are peptides, which form the first main line of defense [10]. Among these researchers can mention defensins, cathelicidins, and histatins in the important synergistic action that is a limiting factor for microbial growth [10][11]. The presence of the group of antimicrobial peptides known as cathelicidins is very important for its involvement in popular therapy: they are essential in wound healing, immunomodulation, and angiogenesis [10][12]. For the same reason, histatins are of great interest as they possess wound healing properties essential in the processes of re-epithelialisation and endothelial cell adhesion [10][13][14]. Likewise, opiorphin is present in saliva and has analgesic properties that block pain signals and prevent the degradation of substances that activate opioid receptors [10][15]. Saliva could clearly improve wound healing, which is related to its effects on reducing inflammatory cell infiltration, preventing the infection of wounds, accelerating collagen fibre proliferation, and promoting vessel reconstruction in the wound healing process. Moreover, for Rodrigues Neves and colleagues [16], saliva has a great therapeutic potential for the treatment of open skin wounds. In their study that was performed in vitro to investigate the proliferation and migration of keratinocytes from the skin and gums, they show that human saliva can stimulate skin wound closure and an inflammatory response.
Finally, according to Vila and colleagues [10], who relate the components and functions of saliva, it can be noted that wound healing would be linked to growth factors, histatins, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, trefoil factor, leptin, its antibacterial capacity with amylases, cystatins, histatins, mucins, peroxidases, and its antifungal properties with histatin 5, β-defensins, and cathelicidins.

4. Breast Milk

Breast milk has very special characteristics. Similar to an unstructured living tissue, like blood, it can transport nutrients, enhance immunity, destroy pathogens, and influence biochemical systems. Its composition includes a large number of bioactive products such as phagocytes, lymphocytes, lipase, lactoferrin, and lysozyme, the bactericidal and anti-inflammatory action of which is very relevant for infant development and the immune system [17][18]. In principle, its biological activity seems to be decisive in otitis as it has been used in therapeutic practices throughout history. However, its bactericidal properties could only be effective in the external part of the ear canal as breast milk cannot cross the eardrum barrier. This is a problem, as most ear infections are middle ear infections and would disappear on their own. The discovery of growth factors, cytokines, the presence of stem cells, and probiotic bacteria has stimulated interest in research into the use of human breast milk as a medicine. As such, in a recent review [19], its effect was described on the treatment of conjunctivitis, chapped nipples, rhinitis, and infections of the skin and soft tissues, for which it has traditionally been widely used as a natural remedy. Favourable reports have been found showing the efficacy of its topical use for nappy rash, atopic eczema, nappy dermatitis, and umbilical cord separation. In the mouse model, it has been found to be effective in preserving corneal epithelial thickness in dry eye [19].

5. Human Faeces

In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), the medical use of faecal matter (fresh faecal suspension or dry faeces) can be dated back to the fourth century, approximately 1700 years ago. Chinese doctors have accumulated unique and invaluable medical experience in the use of more than 50 different faecal materials [20][21]. TCM is integrated in today’s oriental society together with biomedicine as part of the culture and traditions of its civilisation. For this reason, the pharmacological potential of faeces has been studied on the basis of bibliographic reviews of TCM treatises, with the aim of determining its scientific and medicinal value [20][21]. Most of these faecal drugs have been insufficiently studied; however, fresh faecal juice (made from human faeces and known as “yellow soup”) is commonly used to treat food poisoning, severe diarrhoea, and unconsciousness due to high fever [21]. Zhang and colleagues [22] believe that the efficacy of this “soup” is mainly caused by the gut microbiota from fresh faecal water, and its principle for treating diseases is similar to the faecal microbiota transplantation method of modern medicine.

6. Other Ethnoveterinary Practices (Ritual Healing)

It is important to point out that like ethnomedicine, EVM includes a series of foundations based on experience, which can also incorporate rational foundations with elements of speculative scientific practices; in addition, practices exist that are based on magical–religious beliefs. Thus, researchers have recorded that in Galicia they used to treat scrofula in horses by washing them with the water in which a newlywed couple had previously washed themselves [23][24]. In Asturias, to facilitate fertility in cows, they would rub the animal with children’s urine [25].
Callejo and Iniesta [26] cite the existence of a boy in Yeste (Albacete) in the early 20th century who not only became famous for treating people, but also for treating horses affected by equine colic by simply rubbing the animal’s belly with his espadrille. This same practice was documented more recently by Ortega Madrid [27] in Cartagena (Murcia). In Villarino de los Aires (Salamanca), equine colic was treated by rubbing the belly of the sick animal with the hand of a person who had been born standing upright [28]; while in Guijo de Granadilla (Cáceres), it was believed that this condition was cured when the equine was ridden by a twin, and after having gone for a long ride [29].
Similarly, in another part of Cáceres province (Malpartida de Plasencia), when a horse was suffering from urine retention, the ritual of lifting a twin child on to its rump was performed. In a short time, the animal was fine [30].
However, the greatest example in Spain of the need to resort to persons who met certain birth requirements (e.g., being the seventh son of seven brothers, the older of two twin brothers) can be found in the performances of traditional healers known as saludadores. These healers, endowed with supposed power, were dedicated to healing persons and animals affected by rabies with their saliva, their breath, and certain prayers [27][31][32][33][34].
These saludadores, in order to be considered as healers and qualified to perform their duties, had to meet the aforementioned birth requirements, as well as passing various tests. Some of these tests involved walking on a red-hot iron in bare feet or extinguishing a burning ember with their tongue without making any mark on the performer [33].
Well-documented since the 15th century, the activity of the saludadores was performed throughout almost the whole of Spain until the middle of the 20th century, enjoying the approval of society as a whole, including the authorities [32][33][34]. There are numerous references in the Spanish press of the 20th century concerning the work of saludadores in treating people [34], but few references to their attempts to treat domestic animals bitten by a rabid dog recorded for contemporary Spanish EVM. A singular event was documented in 1907 in Valdanzo (Soria), where a case of rabies occurred in a donkey. The Junta de Sanidad (Health Board) of that locality adopted as a public health measure the cremation of the affected donkey and the isolation of the other domestic animals owned by the donkey’s owner, but this man ignored the agreements, having instead put himself into the hands of an itinerant saludador who came to the village [33]. To treat sheep bitten by a rabid dog in Talayuela and Navalmoral de la Mata (Cáceres), the work of the saludador, male or female, was reduced to giving the sick animal pieces of bread mixed with saliva, to the accompaniment of a ceremony with plenty of prayers and incantations [35].
On some occasions, women played an important and special role in magical–religious practices. For example, when tending to formigo in horses (hoof rot), it was treated with hot quartz, and if this prescription failed, the blessings of women were resorted to. The procedure consisted of placing the hoof on a clod of dirt and cutting the shape around it with a knife as the corresponding spell was incanted or warm blessings were pronounced invoking “the power of God and the Virgin Mary”. Then the clod was placed in the sun and, as it dried, the animal was cured of its illness [36]. Although, in that case, no human product was involved, there are occasions when the gender nuance is linked to various human products such as sweat or menstrual blood. As an example, researchers can cite the curing in Galicia of colic in cows, in which the sore area is rubbed with a woman’s used shirt. Afterwards, the garment has to be washed by another woman who is menstruating and the sick animal is given the water from the washing to drink [36]. To conclude these gender-related practices, researchers can mention that in Extremadura, it has been a widespread belief that snakes in general, and vipers in particular, escape the unpleasant odour given off when women’s hair is burnt. That is why, to prevent bites from vipers, many shepherds resorted to making such bonfires [35].

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/vetsci8120323

References

  1. Sarigul, N.; Korkmaz, F.; Kurultak, I. A new artificial urine protocol to better imitate human urine. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 20159.
  2. Bouatra, S.; Aziat, F.; Mandal, R.; Guo, A.C.; Wilson, M.R.; Knox, C.; Bjorndahl, T.C.; Krishnamurthy, R.; Saleem, F.; Liu, P.; et al. The human urine metabolome. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e73076.
  3. Marcos Casquero, M.A. Virtudes mágicas y medicinales de la orina según los escritores latinos (1ª parte). Estud. Hum. Filol. 2005, 27, 139–170.
  4. Ramesh, H.A.; Azmathulla, M.; Baidya, M.; Asad, M. Wound healing activity of human urine in rats. Res. J. Pharm. Biol. Chem. Sci. 2010, 1, 750–758.
  5. Fu, Y.; Guan, J.; Guo, S.; Guo, F.; Niu, X.; Liu, Q.; Zhang, C.; Nie, H.; Wang, Y. Human urine-derived stem cells in combination with polycaprolactone/gelatin nanofibrous membranes enhance wound healing by promoting angiogenesis. J. Transl. Med. 2014, 12, 274.
  6. Uzieliene, I.; Urbonaite, G.; Tachtamisevaite, Z.; Mobasheri, A.; Bernotiene, E. The potential of menstrual blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells for cartilage repair and regeneration: Novel aspects. Stem Cells Int. 2018, 2018, 5748126.
  7. Cuenca, J.; Le-Gatt, A.; Castillo, V.; Belletti, J.; Díaz, M.; Kurte, G.M.; González, P.L.; Alcayaga-Miranda, F.; Schuh, C.M.A.P.; Ezquer, F.; et al. The reparative abilities of menstrual stem cells modulate the wound matrix signals and improve cutaneous regeneration. Front. Physiol. 2018, 9, 464.
  8. Dalirfardouei, R.; Jamialahmadi, K.; Jafarian, A.H.; Mahdipour, E. Promising effects of exosomes isolated from menstrual blood-derived mesenchymal stem cell on wound-healing process in diabetic mouse model. J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 2019, 13, 555–568.
  9. Chen, L.; Qu, J.; Xiang, C. The multi-functional roles of menstrual blood-derived stem cells in regenerative medicine. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2019, 10, 1.
  10. Vila, T.; Rizk, A.M.; Sultan, A.S.; Jabra-Rizk, M.A. The power of saliva: Antimicrobial and beyond. PLoS Pathog. 2019, 15, e1008058.
  11. Abiko, Y.; Nishimura, M.; Kaku, T. Defensins in saliva and the salivary glands. Med. Electron Microsc. 2003, 36, 247–252.
  12. Khurshid, Z.; Naseem, M.; Asiri, F.Y.I.; Mali, M.; Khan, R.S.; Sahibzada, H.A.; Zafar, M.S.; Moin, S.F.; Khan, E. Significance and diagnostic role of antimicrobial cathelicidins (LL-37) peptides in oral health. Biomolecules 2017, 7, 80.
  13. Oudhoff, M.J.; Bolscher, J.G.M.; Nazmi, K.; Kalay, H.; Hof, W.; Amerongen, A.V.N.; Veerman, E.C.I. Histatins are the major wound-closure stimulating factors in human saliva as identified in a cell culture assay. FASEB J. 2008, 22, 3805–3812.
  14. Torres, P.; Castro, M.; Reyes, M.; Torres, V.A. Histatins, wound healing and cell migration. Oral Dis. 2018, 24, 1150–1160.
  15. Wisner, A.; Dufour, E.; Messaoudi, M.; Nejdi, A.; Marcel, A.; Ungeheuer, M.N.; Rougeot, C. Human opiorphin, a natural antinociceptive modulator of opioid-dependent pathways. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 17979–17984.
  16. Rodrigues Neves, C.; Buskermolen, J.; Roffel, S.; Waaijman, T.; Thon, M.; Veerman, E.; Gibbs, S. Human saliva stimulates skin and oral wound healing in vitro. J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 2019, 13, 1079–1092.
  17. Wambach, K.; Riordan, J. Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, 5th ed.; Jones and Bartlett Publishers Inc.: Burlington, MA, USA, 2015.
  18. Arnardottir, H.; Orr, S.K.; Dalli, J.; Serhan, C.N. Human milk proresolving mediators stimulate resolution of acute inflammation. Mucosal Immunol. 2016, 9, 757–766.
  19. Witkowska-Zimny, M.; Kamińska-El-Hassan, E.; Wróbel, E. Milk therapy: Unexpected uses for human breast milk. Nutrients 2019, 11, 944.
  20. Frick, J. Medicinal uses of substances derived from the animal organism (in Tsinghai). Anthropos 1957, 52, 177–198.
  21. Du, H.; Kuang, T.T.; Qiu, S.; Xu, T.; Huan, C.L.G.; Fan, G.; Zhang, Y. Fecal medicines used in traditional medical system of China: A systematic review of their names, original species, traditional uses, and modern investigations. Chin. Med. 2019, 14, 31.
  22. Zhang, F.; Cui, B.; He, X.; Nie, Y.; Wu, K.; Fan, D.; Feng, B.; Chen, D.; Ren, J.; Deng, M.; et al. Microbiota transplantation: Concept, methodology and strategy for its modernization. Protein Cell. 2018, 9, 462–473.
  23. Vázquez Varela, J.M. Introducción á Antropoloxía da Veterinaria Popular en Galicia; Diputación Provincial de Orense: Orense, Spain, 2003.
  24. Lis Quibén, V. La medicina Popular en Galicia; Gráficas Torres: Pontevedra, Spain, 1949.
  25. Fernández-Guisasola Muñiz, F.J.; Fernández García, J. Remedios d’orixe humanu na melecina popular asturiana (usu real y simbólicu) / Remedies of human origin in Asturian folk medicine (real and symbolic use). Lletres Astur. 2012, 107, 131–137.
  26. Callejo, J.; Iniesta, J.A. Testigos del Prodigio: Poderes Ocultos y Oficios Insólitos; Oberon: Madrid, Spain, 2001.
  27. Ortega Madrid, J. El último saludador. Murgetana 2015, 132, 89–114.
  28. Morán Bardón, C. Creencias sobre curaciones supersticiosas recogidas en la provincia de Salamanca. AMSEAEP 1927, 6, 241–261.
  29. Hurtado, P. Supersticiones Extremeñas. Anotaciones Psico-Fisiológicas; Librería Jiménez: Cáceres, Spain, 1902.
  30. Tejerina Gallardo, A. Usos y Saberes Sobre las Plantas de Monfragüe. Etnobotánica de la Comarca Natural; Itomonfragüe: Cáceres, Spain, 2010.
  31. Aguirre Sorondo, A. Los saludadores. Cuad. Etnogr. Navar. 1990, 56, 307–319.
  32. Peris Barrio, A. Los saludadores. Rev. Folk. 2009, 339, 75–79.
  33. Poza, P. Los saludadores y su actividad en España. Inf. Vet. 2012, 9, 24–26.
  34. Poza, P. La prensa histórica como testigo de la rabia y la actividad de los saludadores. Inf. Vet. 2013, 5, 28–30.
  35. Domínguez Moreno, J.M. La etnoveterinaria en Extremadura: El tratamiento del ganado lanar. Rev. Folk. 1994, 160, 111–121.
  36. Freire Sánchez, P. Menciñeiros, Saludadores e Compoñedores: Los Sanadores en la Medicina Popular de Galicia; Era Editorial: La Coruña, Spain, 2006.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
This entry is offline, you can click here to edit this entry!
Academic Video Service
Feedback