Stakeholders in Managing a Safe City

Stakeholders in Managing a Safe City: History

Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Subjects: Management

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Contemporary cities are complex systems in which there are many interactions and dependencies in relation to the environment. Currently, the development of cities and their safety are among the most important international socio-economic processes. The movement of people to larger agglomerations from smaller towns creates a variety of relationships between actors and often leads to very complicated lives in urban space. Features of contemporary cities include urbanization, personal development opportunities, labor markets, and infrastructure, as well as technological and cybernetic networks that optimize all the processes taking place in agglomerations. It should be emphasized that the main goal of public management in urban space is to create various solutions in the field of safety and thus to improve the quality of. In this respect, the role and influence of stakeholders on the processes of smart and safe city development are important. At each stage of activity, the City Council, local communities, economic entities, scientific institutions, and municipal enterprises are important for a city’s safety.

stakeholders
safe and smart city
public management
security of inhabitants

1. Definitions of a Safe City

Today, urban planning and safety work have become closely intertwined ^[1]. The concept of the safe city appears in the literature; however, this concept is not analyzed as often as the smart city concept. In some publications, the concept of the safe city is treated as one of the systems that make up the smart city ^[2]^[3]. However, some researchers have come to the conclusion that this narrows the issue and that it needs to be expanded. They argue that the safe city should be treated as equivalent to the smart city, with the two concepts being intertwined.

While the subjects of research interest on smart cities include using modern technologies to improve residents’ quality of life, increasing the efficiency of city management, improving the quality of provided urban services, and increasing the city’s competitiveness ^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7], the safe city concept covers issues related to the provision of civil protection, property, the environment, and infrastructure. It should be noted, however, that actions to create safe urban space not only use modern technologies but also older solutions that may prove useful ^[8].

Often, most works on safe cities only refers to crime reduction issues, e.g., reduction in murder or rape ^[9]^[10]^[11]. One of the most reliable indicator of a safe city is the number of murders per 100,000 inhabitants (for example lists drawn up by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime). Meanwhile, today, urban safety is a result of many complex factors. These include a lack of opportunities, widening inequity, territorial segregation, economic polarization, poor urban planning, and social exclusion, as well as drugs, guns, organized crime, and poor crime prevention ^[12].

As Gaspar Viega points out, a senior director at Alcatel-Lucent specializing in public safety: “If you think about safety only in terms of reducing crime, that doesn’t necessarily mean that the city will be kept safe. For example, you can look at casualties from poor traffic management and auto accidents. It’s also about the level of pollution in a city. This is how a safe city should be analyzed” ^[13]. Concepts of the safe city include a wide range of aspects and activities linked to public spaces, from crime prevention to physical protection of the environment, to accessibility, and to institutional and organizational aspects ^[14]. Ristvej, Lacinák, and Ondrejka (2020) propose that the concept of the safe city should include the following components: intelligent safety technologies for surveillance, search, detection, and identification; healthcare; relevant data and centers for data processing to administer the city’s cloud; methodology of activities; informational and cybernetic safety; design; intelligent technologies of crisis management to support decision making, provide early warnings, and to monitor and forecast emergencies and environmental situations; security components of individual systems in the safe city; and centrally managed technologies for police and integrated rescue systems ^[8].

The complexity of urban safety issues can also be seen in the number of factors that are taken into account when creating an index of safe cities. The list is based on 57 indicators grouped into four blocks: digital security, infrastructure security, health security, and personal security. Tokyo, Singapore, Osaka, Amsterdam, and Sydney ^[15] were considered the safest cities in 2019. This situation changed in 2021 ^[16]. Table 1 presents a list of the safest cities by block.

Table 1. The safest cities in 2019 and 2021.

Overall Score	Digital Security	Health Security	Infrastructure Security	Personal Security
2019
Tokyo Singapore Osaka Amsterdam Sydney	Tokyo Singapore Chicago Washington, DC Los Angeles/San Francisco	Osaka Tokyo Seoul Amsterdam/Stockholm	Singapore Osaka Barcelona Tokyo Madrid	Singapore Copenhagen Hong Kong Tokyo Wellington
2021
Copenhagen Toronto Singapore Sydney Tokyo	Sydney Singapore Copenhagen Los Angeles/San Francisco	Tokyo Singapore Hong Kong Melbourne Osaka	Hong Kong Singapore Copenhagen Toronto Tokyo	Copenhagen Amsterdam Frankfurt Stockholm Brussels ¹

¹ Source: based on Safe Cities Index 2019 and Safe Cities Index 2021.

Ensuring a safe urban space is a condition for the life and work of a city’s inhabitants, the protection of their rights and freedoms, and the effective functioning of the economy, urban space, transport, and communications. All the key stakeholders in cities (police, fire/medical emergency services, city government, homeland security, transit, and utilities) should provide an effective safety or security response to any situation affecting their citizens or organizations ^[17].

To sum up, in this article, the concept of a safe city should be understood as a city that is focused on increasing the level of security and improving the quality of life of its inhabitants, using both innovative and traditional tools and cooperation with stakeholders, especially in the areas of digital security, infrastructure security, health, security, and personal security. According to the authors safe city stakeholders are all entities (people, communities, institutions, organizations, offices) that can influence this city or a specific project implemented in it through their rights, obligations or interests.

2. Stakeholders—A Description and Roles

The term stakeholder comes from the English word stake, which is often translated as input, participation in an interest, or involvement in an aspect of an activity. The term also refers to the risk incurred, but also to cooperation, need and claim, demand, requirement, knowledge, expectation, or the legitimacy of demanding a certain commitment ^[18]^[19].

One can find references from the 1950s in the literature on the subject. The concept of the stakeholder theory can be understood as the fact that companies are responsible not only for the interests of shareholders, but also for their employees, customers, and society ^[20]. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary presents a definition from the 19th century which defines a stakeholder as a person who holds the stakes in bets on various games, while the use of the word stakeholder in financial literature began in the middle of the 20th century ^[21]^[22].

However, it is accepted that the contemporary concept of stakeholders was first used in 1963 by the Stanford Research Institute (now called SRI International), which defined stakeholders as “groups without whose support an organization could not exist”.

Referring to an internal SRI memo, Ansoff (1965) ^[23] highlighted the issue of corporate responsibility towards stakeholders, defining the concept of stakeholder management as a method of balancing claims by different stakeholder groups. Moreover, Ansoff recognized Abrams’ (1954) ^[20], as well as Cyert and March’s (1963) ^[24], views on stakeholders and their goals, but rejected the theory in favor of a view that divided goals into the “economic” and “social”. A “stakeholder” refers to one who has an interest and, according to Freeman and Reed (1983) ^[25] and Argandoña (1998) ^[26], the term refers to “all those who have an interest in the organization (so that the company, in turn, can have an interest in satisfying their satisfaction and requirements)”. However, it also includes those who have an interest, according to Rhenman (1968) and Frederick (1998) ^[27]^[28]: “all those who belong to an environment that is interested in what the organization does”.

In the literature, other researchers indicate additional characteristics of stakeholders; e.g., they should be treated as strictly external groups to the organization, which is part of an environment to which specific risk weights are assigned ^[19]^[29]^[30]^[31]. Moreover, Slatter underlines in his research that all stakeholder groups generate both risks and benefits, so it is important to identify risks ^[29]^[31]. Table 2 presents a chronological list of stakeholder definitions presented in the literature. The table catalogues the best-known stakeholder terms, including the 1984 Freeman ^[32] definition, which has been adopted by many other scientists. Different authors adopt different definitions to create an interdisciplinary debate and encourage others to perform their own research.

Table 2. Chronological list of stakeholder definitions presented in the literature on the subject in business and public sector.

No.	Date	Author	Definition
1.	1951	Abrams	The basic responsibilities of management derive from general obligations to maintain a fair and workable balance between the claims of the various groups concerned ^[20].
2.	1952	Silbert	First use of the word stakeholder in the context of finance and factoring ^[21].

3.	1959	Penrose	Defining the nature of the organization in the form of human collections and contacts between participants and stakeholders ^[22].
4.	1963	Stanford Research Institute	Groups without whose support the organization could not exist (Stanford Research Institute 1963).
5.	1965	Ansoff	The organization’s objectives should be determined by balancing the conflicting claims of the various “stakeholders” of the company. The organization has obligations to all these actors and must configure its objectives in this way to give everyone a degree of satisfaction ^[23].
6.	1983	Freeman and Reed	In the broad sense: they can influence the achievement of the organization’s objectives for those affected by the achievement of the organization’s objectives; in the narrow sense: those on which the organization’s continued existence depends ^[25].
7.	1984	Freeman	They may influence or be influenced by the achievement of the organization’s goals ^[32].
8.	1991	Miller and Lewis	Stakeholders are people who can help or harm the organization ^[33].
9.	1993	Brenner	Entities with a legitimate, relevant relationship with the organization, such as exchange transactions and influence on activities and moral responsibility ^[34]
10.	1993	Starik	Naturally occurring entities that are influenced or influenced by the organization’s performance ^[35]
12.	1994	Clarkson	They carry some form of risk as a result of investing some kind of capital, human, or financial or bear the risk as a result of the company’s actions ^[36].
13.	1994	Mahoney	Passive stakeholders who have moral claims against the organization relating to non-violation and non-infringement and active stakeholders whose claims are more social ^[37].
14.	1995	Blair	All parties who have contributed to the company and who, as a result, have risky investments and are highly specialized in the company ^[38].
15.		Donaldson and Preston	Persons having direct or implied contracts with the company. Identified by actual or potential damages and benefits they experience or expect to experience as a result of the company’s actions or their own interactions with the company ^[39].
16.		Mitchell, Agle, and Wood	Legitimate or urgent claim against the company or authority to influence the company, voluntary members of the cooperation scheme for mutual benefit, […] partners seeking a mutual advantage. A claim (standard) can only be justified if it can be approved by all those affected by the standard ^[40].
17.	1998	Argandofńia	All those who have an interest in the company (so that the company in turn may have an interest in meeting their requirements) ^[26].
18.	1998	Frederick	All members of a community that are interested in what the organization does ^[28].
19.	1999	Clarkson Centre for Business Ethics	Interested parties: they bear certain risks and may therefore gain or lose something as a result of the company’s activities ^[41].
20.	2000	Gibson	Groups and persons, with whom the organization has relations or interdependencies, and any person or group that may influence or be influenced by actions or decisions, a politician, and the organization’s practices or objectives ^[42].
21.	2001	Hendry	Entities in relationships based on moral considerations […] Relationships that cannot be reduced to contractual or economic relationships alone. They include social features such as interdependence ^[43].
22.	2001	Orts and Strudler	Business participants with some kind of economic contribution that is subject to risk ^[44].
23.	2003	Phillips	Normative stakeholders: those for whose benefit the company should be managed. Torch Stakeholders: they can potentially influence the organization and its normative stakeholders ^[45].
24.	2004	Boddy and Paton	Stakeholders are individuals, groups, or institutions with an interest in the project and who may influence its outcome ^[46].
25.	2005	Andersen	Person or group of persons affected or likely to be affected by the project ^[47].
26.	2006	Bourne and Walker	Stakeholders are individuals or groups who have an interest or some aspect of rights or ownership in a project and can contribute to or influence the results of the project ^[48].
27.	2007	Olander	A person or group of persons who are interested in the success of the project and the environment in which the project operates ^[49].
28.	2008	Walker, Bourne and Rowlinson	Stakeholders are individuals or groups who have an interest, ownership, or some kind of rights towards the project and may contribute to or be influenced by the project ^[50].
29.	2009	Couillard, Garon and Riznic	Entities or persons who are or will be influenced directly or indirectly by the organization ^[51].
30.	2009	Bourne	Individuals or groups that are or that may be affected by the work or its results at this particular point in the organization’s life cycle ^[18].
31.	2013	Bogdanienko and Piotrowski	The organization’s stakeholders are significant individuals, interest (pressure) groups, coalitions, or organizations that have their own interests in the functioning of a particular organization and can influence it ^[52].
32.	2016	Szwajca	The author defines stakeholders as individuals or groups that may influence or be influenced by various activities that affect the reputation of the organization ^[53].
33.	2017	Project Management Institute	People, groups, and organizations that may influence or be influenced by the decision, action, or outcome of the project ^[54]

Source: based on the aforementioned literature.

It should be noted that there is a consensus in the literature on the definition of the concept of stakeholders ^[39], but there is still an ongoing discussion among management theorists and practitioners about who is and who is not a stakeholder, about their actual or potential impact on the organization, and their devision ^[55]. Traditionally, internal stakeholders (e.g., staff, management) are most often differentiated from external stakeholders (e.g., customers, suppliers), thereby representing conflicting objectives ^[56]. Different studies and interpretations have evidenced the many divisions and categories of stakeholders.

Various approaches are used in the process of developing the division and description of stakeholders:

Classification of stakeholders based on the strength of influence, legitimacy, and legitimacy of the relationship with the organization and urgency of the request ^[40]^[53];
Systematization of stakeholders’ expectations based on the hierarchy of values and Key Performance Areas (KPA) ^[57];
Distribution of stakeholders according to potential threat or willingness to cooperate ^[58];
Assessment of the awareness, support, and influence of leading stakeholders on communication strategy and evaluation of stakeholder satisfaction ^[59];
Stakeholder analysis as an assessment of the actual rather than the formal power arrangement, related to the management of the company or to the management of the project and its environment ^[60]^[61];
Determining stakeholder identification, evaluation, and engagement ^[19]^[62];
Stakeholder Circle method, which is a multi-dimensional map showing stakeholder proximity to the project, degree of impact strength, scale and scope of impact, or a three-dimensional stakeholder cube defining the profile of involvement of all groups in the project ^[18]^[63];
A method of stakeholder classification due to the complexity of several factors, such as the probability of response, the strength of the impact, the strength of the interest, the risks incurred, or the position of commitment taken ^[18]^[53].

Analyzing all the divisions of stakeholders present in the literature, it can be observed that the process of adaptation of organizations, such as cities, to changes in the market is one of the most important aspects of activity. Under the conditions of a crisis, it is essential to take into account the involvement and benefits of stakeholders and build loyalty relationships with them in the local environment, which can be helpful in creating security in the city. To sum up, without this cooperation, long-term development and cooperation based on safety is not possible; therefore, very often, the value of the city is determined by the proper choice of sources creating value and influence, the involvement of stakeholders, and the proper management of relations with them.

A distribution of stakeholders by their level of influence and level of involvement in the organization is presented in Table 3. It is worth noting that the level of engagement and the level of impact on security, and thus the resulting results, are different for each interest group ^[64].

Table 3. Characterization of the stakeholders in an organization (in terms of impact and commitment to creating a safe organization).

Stakeholders with primary impact and direct involvement (key)
1. Internal and close to them (directly related to the tasks of the company)	Owners, shareholders, management, authorities, employees and their families, former employees, pensioners, applicants, apprentices, members of informal groups in the company, proxies, advisors, supervisory boards, works councils/employee organizations, members in member organizations, and their democratic bodies/authorities.
2. External (more or less directly related to the tasks of the company in question)	Shareholders, members of co-ownership bodies, persons with influence over co-owners, representation of members in the bodies of associations, competitors/industry and non-industry opponents (e.g., those operating in the same labor, capital, know-how, opinion, value, or idea markets), ad hoc competitors, sales representatives and/or other sales and supply intermediaries, development funds, strategic (business) partners, customers/buyers/receivers/users/consumers, cooperatives, their members and associations, banks and other financial institutions, dealers, brokers, lobbying organizations, consulting companies, consumer organizations, employee organizations, trade unions, employers’ associations, other industry and professional communities and business agreements, business associations, advertising, marketing, and public relations agencies, members of social and professional organizations.
Second-level stakeholders with indirect (supporting) involvement
Environment of the so-called “Arcade”: general authorities at various levels and regulatory institutions in the economy and social life	Governmental and state bodies, their agendas and members, including members of local government bodies, members of parliament, senators and other politicians acting within the state bodies, various levels of decision-makers/state bodies in the field of social, political, economic, and cultural life and the executors of their policies and decisions among other organizations/regulatory bodies active in the labor and financial markets, ministries relevant to social policy, dialogue bodies of state institutions, financial institutions, fiduciary offices, judicial authorities, consumer/government ombudsmen with interest groups, state employment offices, tax and customs services.
Stakeholders with further degrees of impact and further involvement (marginal)
1. Opinion formers/Environmental opinions	Mass media, journalists, journalists’ organizations, editorial offices, correspondents (including foreign ones), editorial offices of company (company) newspapers, press departments of institutions and companies from the local environment, universities and their authorities, students and their representations, university promotion departments, alumni associations, employers’ and alumni councils, leaders of views and opinions originating from various areas of public life, influential representatives of cultural, educational, political, and religious institutions, creative associations, the audience of influential media, guests visiting companies.
2. Citizens’ initiatives and similar	Non-governmental organizations protecting the environment, civil liberties, and rights, consumer associations, other grassroots institutions of public life, societies working to solve social and health problems, environmental organizations, etc.
3. Corporate and international environment	Diplomatic representations, diplomats, consular departments of embassies, representations of foreign organizations and authorities, affiliations of international organizations.¹

¹ Source: own work, based on: ^[18]^[19]^[53]^[65].

With reference to the key stakeholders in creating a safe city, it should be noted that several types of security for its residents should be secured—primarily digital security, infrastructure security, health security, and personal security. Therefore, it is important to know which leaders have been chosen by the citizens, whether these leaders are supported by specific political parties and city councils, whether the law is enforced by bodies that do not abuse their power, whether people working in offices are competent, whether the information technology used is safe for everyone, and what actions are taken by managers in cooperation with stakeholders in the policies for creating a safe city.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su14010244

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