Lantana camara: browsable species for goats

Lantana camara: browsable species for goats: History

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Subjects: Environmental Sciences

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Lantana camara is regarded as one of the most ecologically and economically destructive invasive alien plants. The spread of L. camara affects the environment and threatens livestock productivity due to its toxicity to animals (especial cattle and sheep) in most semi-arid areas of South Africa. Lantana camara is known to have high concentrations of nutrients that are beneficial to livestock, but most previous research has concentrated on its toxicity.

Ecosystem
plant invasions
toxicity
semi arid

1. Introduction

Invasive alien plant species (IAPS) and climate change have been identified by the International Union for Conversation of Nature [1], as the major challenges to biodiversity worldwide [2,3]. As far as the aforementioned aspects are concerned, greenhouse emissions, extremely warm temperatures combined with a decline in rainfall during the growing season, pose a direct challenge to the distribution of plant species worldwide [4]. Furthermore, although the colonization of natural habitats by alien plant species is a natural phenomenon, recent invasions, among others, are mainly due to humans’ activities [5], such as international trades [6]. The introduction of many species beyond their natural range is driven by increased trade and the movement of products around the world [7]. Sharma et al. [5] noted that alien plant species have a far greater potential for invasion than indigenous plants. This is because alien plant species may be more efficient competitors that face relatively little pressure from natural predators than indigenous plant species, established in their native land. Lantana camara has been rated as amongst the most invasive species in Queensland, Australia [8]. It is also one of the 100 deadliest IAPS in the world, as acknowledged by the Invasive Species Specialist Group [9].

Ubarn et al. [10] stated that, in Africa, Southern Asia, Australia and Oceania tropical, subtropical and warm temperature areas, L. camara is one of the major ecologically and economically destructive IAPS. This then affects the rangeland quality in the arid and semi-arid regions of Southern Africa where the rangelands are the main source of feed for livestock production. In these areas, livestock production serves as the primary source of income to remote agrarian regions [11]. Nutrition remains a focal factor in livestock production in these regions, with climate change contributing significantly to the major loss in rangeland profitability. Furthermore, during the dry season, grazing lands are prone to overgrazing and drying out, which results in animal feed shortages and inevitably lower levels of protein and energy in fodder. Consequently, the basic nutrient demands for a great number of livestock cannot be met [12]. In addition, in instances of an abundance of low-quality feed, it is of paramount importance to correct that inconsistency through supplementation of the main available fodder with a certain quantity of concentrates. According to Manaye et al. [13] and Gusha et al. [12], for resource-poor farmers, the conventional livestock diets are inaccessible due to the hefty costs, which automatically exclude smallholder livestock producers. As a result, there is a need for more alternative sources of protein to be made available for livestock. Lantana camara can serve as a possible solution by providing an alternative cheap protein source.

2. Plant Description

Lantana camara is a deciduous shrub native to tropical America [14], belonging to the Verbenaceae family, popularly referred to as wild or red sage and is recognized as both a weed and a prominent exotic fruit plant [15]. Lantana camara is a vigorous, low, erect or subscandent, triangular stemmed shrub and, when green, is covered in bristly hairs. It is also armed or covered with tiny spines. The height of the weed can range from 1 to 3 m, while the width can widen to 2.5 m. Leaves on both sides are acute or subacute, crenate, ovate, scabrid serrate and rugose above, and have a heavy fragrance. Rough trichomes cover the leaves and stems. Flowers of the weed are small, multicolored, stalked, and densely clustered in flat-topped clusters, with a narrow tube and four short widening lobes on the corolla [14]. The four spreading lobes are green, 3–8 cm stretched, and 3–6 cm tall. It has tiny flowers in clusters. In different shades, the color is generally orange, from white to red and color usually changes as they age. Flowers have yellow throats nearly all year round in the axillary head. The calyx is a thin, slender corolla tube, 6–7 mm wide and separated into unequal lobes. Inflorescences in the axils of opposite leaves are present in pairs [16]. Mukwevho et al. [17] found thirteen varieties of L. camara in four provinces of South Africa viz. orange-red (015 OR), white pink (021 WP), Hawaii red (017 OR), dark pink (010 DP, 110 DP, 018 DP), white yellow (015 WY), pink (021 P), total pink (021 TP), and light pink (165 LP, 163 LP, 113 LP, 112 LP).

3. Lantana camara Species Distribution in Southern Africa

Documentation indicates that L. camara was established in South Africa by 1858 [18], in Cape Town, Western Cape Province (WC), where it rarely spread under Mediterranean climate conditions, and was also documented in 1883 in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal Province (KZN) [10]. Kannan et al. [19] and Shackleton et al. [20] highlighted that L. camara was mainly introduced by British colonists around the world, including South Africa, for ornamental purposes. According to the Conservation of Agriculture Resources Act, L. camara is categorized as one of the prohibited dangerous weeds that need to be closely monitored at all costs. Similarly, detrimental to rangelands, water supply and South African biodiversity, L. camara is placed the highest in terms of negative impact on the environment [21]. Many rigorous biological controls in South Africa have been directed to this species [10,22]. In the last two decades, 30 potential biological control agents have been assessed and seven appropriate for release to Africa have been identified [10]. However, only five of these were identified and they do not offer sufficient efficacy because they neither kill the lantana weed nor stop the weed-growing population [22]. Moreover, it is currently naturalized in South Africa in the wet, humid subtropical and temperate regions of Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, and KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) [17], as well as the southern coastal regions of the Eastern and Western Cape provinces [23]. Lantana camara invades places such as riverbanks, mountain slopes, valleys, pastures and commercial forests, where it forms dense stands that block entry and use of the invaded areas. Lantana camara has a variety of invasive characteristics that cover its lifespan such as fast growth, rapid reproduction, high dispersal ability, and ecological competence [24].

4. Impact of L. camara on a New Environment

Generally, studies have shown that the invasion of alien species such as L. camara threatens not only the ecosystem processes but also the diversity of species at a community and worldwide scale [25,26]. Studies by Bjerknes et al. [27] and Gooden et al. [25] further revealed that alien species have a negative effect on the environment by inhibiting the recruitment of resident native species. The aforementioned sequelea of the alien plant species prevents seedling establishment, growth and modifications to plant pollinator interactions. Thus, such consequences, as noted by Grice, [28] can result in less native plant richness and abundance. The spread and dominance of L. camara species within their new ranges often leads to negative impacts on people and the environment [26,29,30]. Invasive species can, amongst other things, result in a loss of biodiversity, hinder or even prevent economic development, and reduce the goods and services provided by the ecosystems [20,29,30]. Other studies have noted both a positive and negative impact of L. camara in the ecosystem. Lantana camara is recognized for competing with forestry plants and reducing their productivity, and can also help non-timber forest products regenerate [31,32]. Moreover, it minimizes pollinator stress on native plants and serves as a good honey species [32].

5. Nutritive Values of Lantana camara

Livestock feed is becoming expensive because there are only a few, expensive conventional feed sources. Soybeans and groundnuts are needed by both man and livestock [53], and this competition increase their cost. This makes L. camara leaves well-suited as a protein source for livestock feeds. The level of protein (24.8%) [15], in L. camara leaves compares favourably with certain proteinous plants, i.e., Vigna unguiculata (26%) [54], Cajanus cajan (24.6%) [55], Phaseolus lunatus (27.2%) [56] and Vigna subterranea (23–26%) [57]. The findings by Mtui et al. [37], indicated that the high CP levels of L. camara varieties, which are abundant in semi-arid rangelands, further highlights L. camara’s potential contribution as an important protein supplement to natural grass pastures. Moreover, this species will address the nitrogen deficiencies that are prevalent in most basal roughages, particularly during the dry winter season, when CP values range between 30 and 70 g/kg. Aregheore et al. [58] stated that a low CP tends to reduce voluntary feed intake, resulting in inadequate nutrient supply and negatively affecting ruminant livestock growth. Furthermore, with regarding the low CP, the rate of fermentation in the rumen will be decreased, as well as microbial protein production, thus lowering livestock productivity. Studies have shown that livestock feeds with a CP content of less than 6% are not likely to offer the lowest levels of ammonia needed for peak microbial growth in the rumen [59]. Raw, L. camara leaves have a high CP content, much higher than the minimum 6% needed for livestock production; therefore, they may be utilized as an alternative protein source [60]. Full microbial action can source about 95% of the upkeeping of protein requirements in low levels of production. Lawal et al. [61] reported that the CP content present in L. camara is beyond the average range (78–110 g/kg DM) needed to meet the requirements of lactating goats.

The other important aspect of the results of L. camara varieties’ nutritive value is that the measured neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content ranged from low to moderate, between 409.6 and 465 g/kg DM [12]. In a study by Mangan [62], it was discovered that high NDF values indicate that the varieties had high cell contents, which positively and strongly correlate with digestibility. Acid detergent fibre (ADF), which estimates lignin as well as cellulose, constituents a small fraction (<30% DM). Therefore, it was found that the digestibility of fibre might not be problematic for ruminants. Additionally, Gusha et al. [12] emphasized that the relatively low NDF and ADF values of L. camara provided empirical evidence to support the fact that fibre content in L. camara does not constrain the use of the weed as a feed for livestock that are adept at utilizing diets that are high in NDF and ADF.

Browse plants are recognized as a source of required calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe) and other significant minerals for livestock health. According to Embaby and Mokhtar [43], the fruits of L. camara contained a high amount of potassium (K), followed by phosphorus (P) and sodium (Na). Furthermore, these authors reported the presence of Fe (3.01 mg/100 g), Manganese (Mn) (0.38 mg/100 g), copper (Cu) (1.68 mg/100 g), and Zinc (Zn) (1.05 mg/100 g). The study of Mtui et al. [63], revealed that leaves of L. camara had a satisfactory amount of Sulphur (S), Mg, and Ca, which meet the requirements of goats and cows. However, the study established that leaves are a poor source of P and Cu. Goats and cattle fed these leaves need to be supplemented with these minerals for optimum productivity. Table 2 shows the chemical composition of L. camara, while Table 3 shows the mineral concentration of L. camara leaves.

Table 2. Chemical composition of Lantan camara leaf and fruit.

Proximate Indices	Concentration (%)	Plant Part	References
Moisture	10.15	Leaf	[15]
Moisture	17.27	Fruit	[48]
Crude protein	24.84	Leaf	[15]
	21.32	Leaf	[12]
	23.3	Leaf	[50]
	11.6	Leaf	[52]
Crude fat	4.40	Leaf	[50]
	2.99	Leaf	[15]
	11.00	Fruit	[48]
Dry matter	88.00	Leaf	[50]
	90.80	Leaf	[12]
	82.73	Fruit	[48]
Acid detergent fibre	21.35	Leaf	[12] [50]
Acid detergent fibre	15.70	Leaf	[12] [50]
	21.8	Leaf	[52]
	44.40	Leaf	[52]
	23.30	Leaf	[50]
	34.2	Leaf	[52]
Acid detergent Lignin	10.7	Leaf	[52]

Table 3. Mineral concentration of Lantana camara leaf [15].

Minerals	Concentration (ppm)
Phosphorus	0.07
Calcium	0.54
Manganese	0.99
Sulfur	0.73
Potassium	1.05
Iron	0.84
Magnesium	0.43
Copper	0.53

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su14020751

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