EP is a theoretical–empirical construct that brings together the approaches developed by Bandura on self-efficacy [29], Gardner’s intelligence [30], the studies and research on emotional intelligence by Salovey and Mayer [31], the emotional intelligence model by Bar-On [32] and the maturity model—based on competence—developed by Carpenter [33] and Garmez and Mansten [34]. EP is synthesised in four dimensions of the self: the strengths dimension (self-concept and self-esteem), the demands dimension (motivation, attribution and expectations), the challenges dimension (coping and decision-making) and the relationship dimension of the self (empathy, assertiveness and communication) [35]. Therefore, a person with EP knows and values him/herself (self-concept and self-esteem) and is in a constant process of maturation, with the capacity (intelligence) to achieve (effectiveness) what he/she desires (motivation) and expects (expectation). To do so, the individual employs the best means (selection), uses the CT (strategy), selects the most feasible ways (efficiency) and controls the causes of their achievement (success or failure), facing the personal, circumstantial and social difficulties that arise (coping). In this way, they make the right decisions, without detriment to their good relationships with others (empathy and communication) and without giving up their personal aspirations (assertiveness) [36,37]. EP answers the following questions: Who am I? How do I value myself? What do I want? What expectations do I have of achieving it? On what or on whom does its successful achievement depend? What problems do I have in achieving the objectives? How do I make decisions? How do I communicate with others? How do I put myself in the place of the other? How do I interact without ceasing to be myself? [38]. In short, an effective person is one who manages without major difficulties in the various areas of life, whether personal, academic and/or social.

For two decades, Martín del Buey et al. [39] have addressed EP especially as a construct in which personality traits are related to effective professional or academic behaviour. However, few studies have analysed its importance in the education of children and young people, specifically in the learning of traits such as self-efficacy, empathy, assertiveness, communication skills, coping with problems and self-esteem. All these skills, as experts argue [2,40], need to be developed from the early stages of education in the classroom using pedagogical methodologies such as collaborative and experiential learning.

Martín del Buey et al. [37] explain that the EP construct is synthesised in four dimensions of the “self” that function interactively, influencing each other and generating a type of response (behaviour) which is considered effective in coping with the challenges faced by the person:

(1)

Strengths (self-concept, self-esteem, self-confidence). Self-concept is understood as the cognitive aspects that a person has of him/herself [36]. Self-esteem, on the other hand, refers to the value that individuals place on themselves and which contributes to their potential to be effective [41]. Authors, such as Bhagat [42], Clemes and Bean [43] and González-Váquez [44] argue that one of the main factors influencing students’ academic performance is their level of self-esteem, and that students with low self-esteem tend to feel dissatisfied in school. Asakereh and Yousofi [45] further add that low self-esteem can lead to anxiety and depression. Self-confidence, on the other hand, is a feeling of trust in one’s own ability. This involves, for example, performing activities freely, accepting and respecting other people, motivating oneself to perform at a high level and realising one’s own strengths and weaknesses [46]. Consequently, self-confidence influences motivation and the search for the necessary resources to act appropriately in a situation.

(2)

Demands (motivation, attribution, expectations). The factors in this dimension are structured within temporal coordinates. Motivation appears as the person’s intentionality in the present, and is linked to enthusiasm. Expectation corresponds to the future and attribution to the vision of what the person has done.

(3)

Challenges (problem coping and decision-making). This is an indicator of the degree of effectiveness in coping with problems. Specifically, it refers to the ability to use effective coping strategies and to make decisions with a positive attitude and adjusted to the demands of a given situation. In other words, the person searches for as much information as possible and analyses the consequences of his/her decisions with a willingness to learn from experience.

(4)

The relationships of the self (empathy, assertiveness, communication). This is an indicator of the degree to which a person is able to relate to others and express their opinions assertively. It involves communication skills, empathy and assertiveness. This dimension shows the link between self-perception and the ability to establish and maintain relationships with others, as well as expectations of success in future social relationships.

The possible relationships between EP and CT have been little researched both internationally and in a Spanish context. In this line, Asakereh and Yousofi [45] conducted an investigation to analyse the possible relationships between reflective thinking, self-efficacy, self-esteem and academic performance in 132 Iranian students. The results of the study revealed that there were statistically significant relationships between self-efficacy, self-esteem and academic performance of the participants, but not between reflective thinking and self-esteem. Lin et al. [47] also showed that self-esteem can contribute positively to higher efficacy in decision-making, and that people with higher self-esteem are more confident and have more positive attitudes, for example, in career choice. In a recent study with medical students, Khavanin et al. [48] conclude that self-esteem is an essential indicator of people’s mental health, and that it can vary from one individual to another [49]. These researchers concluded that identifying barriers to the development of CT could help students to increase and improve it. Given the importance of CT for learning and for making relevant decisions in their daily lives, it is necessary to determine the factors that influence students’ CT development.

In Spain, one of the few research studies that comes close to analysing the relationship between EP and CT is the study by Chiva-Bartoll et al. [36]. The authors argue that the development of EP is one of the goals of university education in the 21st century, and investigate how service-learning can contribute to the development of EP in future Physical Education teachers. In the study, they specifically allude to the importance of CT in relation to EP and the effects of service-learning methodology. Guerrero et al. [50] analysed the personal and social competences of 250 Spanish adolescents diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using a questionnaire based on the EP construct model of Martín del Buey and Martín-Palacio [27]. The results show that males obtain higher scores than females diagnosed with the same disorder.