Antimicrobial Lipids from Plants and Marine Organisms

Antimicrobial Lipids from Plants and Marine Organisms: History

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Subjects: Microbiology | Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

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Medicinal plants and marine organisms are natural sources of many antimicrobial compounds. Plant components with antimicrobial activity include alkaloids, sulfur-containing compounds, diterpenes/terpenoids, fatty acids (FA), some carbohydrates, steroidal glycosides, and phenolic compounds. Both primary and secondary metabolites are “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) substances and the chance of triggering antimicrobial resistance is low. The most studied antimicrobial compounds of marine origin are peptides and alkaloids, contrarily to lipids. However, lipids are ubiquitously distributed in the different marine phyla, being quite abundant in some of them. Besides, several lipid classes from marine organisms have been recognized by their biological activity with a high potential to discover new antimicrobial compounds.

fatty acid
lipid extract
lipidomics
macroalga
marine invertebrate
mechanism of action
microalga
minimum inhibitory concentration
monoacylglycerol
natural antimicrobial

1. Introduction

The consumption of antibiotics in the world population is alarming. In 2016, the top five World Health Organization (WHO)’s major antibiotic consuming countries were Brazil, Turkey, Iran, Russia, and France, by decreasing order ^[1]. In Brazil, more than 2000 metric tons of antibiotics were consumed annually, followed by ca. 1000 metric tons in Turkey and Iran ^[1].

Both misuse and overuse of antibiotics has led to the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in microorganisms, which has been a global problem and a growing threat for many years. Antimicrobial resistant microbes are found in people, animals, food, and the environment (hospital or other health care facilities, water, soil and air). Because of AMR, several disease conditions are becoming harder to treat, as tuberculosis, pneumonia, blood poisoning, gonorrhea, and foodborne diseases ^[2]. AMR leads to higher medical costs, prolonged hospital stays, and increased mortality, causing an economic burden for health care systems. The major cause of AMR is mostly due to misuse of antibiotics.

A number of 700,000 deaths occur worldwide because of drug-resistant diseases ^[3]. Tuberculosis causes 1.8 million deaths per year, while multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis causes 250,000 deaths per year and is a global priority for research and development. Gram-negative bacteria can cause death in days because of the lack of treatment options. By 2050, it is foreseen that drug-resistant diseases could cause 10 million deaths each year ^[3]. In 2017, the WHO identified a priority list of highly antimicrobial-resistant pathogenic microorganisms, also known as superbugs, that have developed survival mechanisms to circumvent the action of last-line antimicrobials (isoniazid, rifampicin, fluoroquinolone, carbapenem, third-generation cephalosporin, or vancomycin) ^[4]. There are twelve bacteria that have critical and high priority for treatment discovery, besides Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causing agent of tuberculosis, including the “ESKAPE” pathogens: Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacteriaceae ^[5]. Superbugs cause 33,000 deaths each year, in Europe, by antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. Italy is the European country with one-third of all cases (11,000 deaths in total), followed by France (more than 5500 deaths) and Germany (with 2300 deaths) ^[6]^[7].

The world now lives the so-called “post-antibiotic era.” The current guidelines and recommendations from the WHO claim for an interconnected action and national action plans in a multisectoral and sustained “One Health” approach. This is aimed to tackle AMR and achieve the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 toward humans, food and feed, plants and crops, environment, terrestrial and aquatic animals ^[8].

According to a recent WHO’s report, there are 252 antimicrobial agents in preclinical pipeline, being developed to treat WHO’s priority pathogens, but at very early stages of development ^[9]. Even so, very few target the most critical resistant Gram-negative bacteria, thus, they will generate little benefit over existing treatments ^[9]. As such, it appears that the future will come up with an increased need for new compounds with antimicrobial activity and combined therapeutic strategies, which can be effective against superbugs and bring revenue to the pharmaceutical industry. At the same time, several alternative approaches to conventional antibiotics have been extensively studied, not only to be used in the clinical field but also in animal health, control insect pest, protect agricultural crops, improve food safety, and water disinfection. Developing strategies include antimicrobial peptides (AMP), phage therapy, photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT), nanoparticles, probiotics, lysins, antibodies, quorum sensing inhibitors, and immunotherapeutic agents ^[5]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]. Combination therapy or multi-target approaches are being developed to hinder antibiotic resistance or to sensitize microorganisms to antibiotic action ^[15]. Another strategy to overcome AMR is the combination of conventional antibiotics with other molecules, as natural products and/or antimicrobials from natural sources, as plants and marine organisms, to enhance the antimicrobial effect against a wide range of pathogens.

Medicinal plants and marine organisms are natural sources of many antimicrobial compounds ^[14]^[16]^[17]^[18]. Plant components with antimicrobial activity include alkaloids, sulfur-containing compounds, diterpenes/terpenoids ^[19], fatty acids (FA) ^[20]^[21]^[22], some carbohydrates ^[23], steroidal glycosides, and phenolic compounds ^[24]. Both primary and secondary metabolites are “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) substances and the chance of triggering antimicrobial resistance is low ^[25]. Simultaneously, marine organisms, mainly slow-moving or sessile, have developed adaptive defense mechanisms to protect themselves against pathogenic microorganisms. In some cases, marine organisms maintain associations with microbiota, being bacterial symbionts responsible by the synthesis of antimicrobial molecules ^[26]^[27].

2. Antimicrobial Lipids from Plants

Over the evolution, higher plants have developed several resilience strategies that allow them to resist or escape external attacks (e.g., microorganisms, pathogens, and predators). Their innate immune system had to be equipped with highly complex mechanisms of resistance and survival. The defense mechanisms of plants are unique and consist of both physical barriers and production of secondary metabolites. Plant secondary metabolites are formed in particular biosynthetic pathways by means of substrate-specific enzymes. The precursors of these secondary metabolites stem from primary metabolites, such as amino acids, FA, sugars, or acetyl-CoA. Some of the secondary metabolites serve as constitutive chemical barriers against the microbial attack (phytoanticipins) while others serve as inducible antimicrobials (phytoalexins) ^[28].

Oxylipins are a large family of plants’ secondary metabolites derived from PUFA that make part of their immune system and play key roles as antimicrobial agents. They are formed through enzymatic or radical oxidation of FA 18:2 and 18:3, in order to protect plants against pests and pathogens ^[29]. The enzymatic biosynthesis of these molecules is triggered by an alpha-dioxygenase (DOX) and by lipoxygenases (LOX) ^[30]^[31] that lead to the formation of the different types of molecules, including hydroxy-, hydroperoxy-, divinyl-, oxo-, and keto-derivatives of FA. Oxylipins are formed during abiotic and biotic stresses ^[32]. They are plant signaling molecules that can induce cell death and have an effect on the growth of eukaryotic microbes ^[29]. A deeper knowledge on plant response to stresses at molecular, physiological and metabolic levels will allow the development of new plant-derived antimicrobial molecules for use in the clinical field and as biopesticides ^[32].

The search for novel antimicrobials has led to exploring also amide derivatives of FA because they are natural self-defense agents in plants. FA amides are bioactive lipids ^[33] formed by the amidation of long chain saturated and unsaturated FA (UFA) ^[34]. They have higher antimicrobial activity against yeasts and bacteria than unmodified FA ^[35]. Amide derivatives of FA possess a broad bioactivity against different pathologic conditions (bacterial and parasitic infections, cancer, inflammation, etc.,) and their mechanisms of action imply protein synthesis inhibition and membrane leakage ^[36]. Also, microorganisms inside healthy plant tissues are unique to explore novel bioactive compounds. The FA and their amides from plant’s endogenous microorganisms have been scarcely reported despite being bioactive in a variety of processes and should be more explored as new therapeutic agents ^[36].

Lipids represent up to 7% of the dry weight of the leaves of higher plants and are important constituents of cell membranes, chloroplasts, and mitochondria ^[37]. Besides their structural function as main constituents of cell membranes, they have functional roles in plants (intracellular mediators, extracellular signalers, inter-species communication, and plant defense) and also serve as energy reserves (namely in seeds during germination) ^[21]. Palmitic acid (16:0) is the major saturated FA in leaf lipids. On the other hand, chloroplast membranes can have up to 90% α-18:3 FA in some lamellae ^[21]. FA exist in plants mainly linked to more complex molecules, as acylglycerols, esterified to a glycerol backbone in the form of triacylglycerols, sterol esters, MAG and diacylglycerols, phospholipids, or glycolipids. Several lipid classes, besides FA and MAG, have been identified in a diverse group of higher plants and tested for their antimicrobial activity, as will be detailed in the next sub-sections. Figure 1 illustrates the chemical structures of the different lipid classes with antimicrobial activity isolated from natural sources.

Figure 1. Chemical structures of the different lipid classes isolated from natural sources with antimicrobial activity.

2.1. Extraction and Isolation of Plant Lipids

Studies that extract or isolate lipids from plants to test their antimicrobial activity are scarce (Table 1). The biomass used to extract lipids includes leaves, fruits, seeds, stems, rhizomes, shoots, stem barks, and heartwoods (Table 1). Lipid extraction from plants is usually carried out with organic solvents of different polarities (mainly n-hexane, CHCl₃, CH₂Cl₂, EtOAc, EtOH, BuOH, MeOH, and their mixtures) (Table 1). Liquid/liquid extractions or Soxhlet extraction are commonly performed to obtain total lipid extracts ^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]. Instead of analyzing one lipid class or one lipid molecule, some studies have analyzed the total lipid extracts that were obtained by sequential extraction.

Table 1. Plant potential antimicrobial lipids or lipid-rich extracts, their origin and extraction method grouped by botanic family.

Botanical Name	Family	Common Name	Country of Collection	Plant Part	Extracting Solvent/Method	Isolated Lipids or Lipid Mixtures	Ref.
Sesuvium portulacastrum L.	Aizoaceae	Sea purslane	India	Leaves	MeOH/benzene/sulfuric acid (200:100:10, v/v)	FAME	^[43]
Blutaparon portulacoides (A. St.-Hil.) Mears	Amaranthaceae	Capotiraguá	Brazil	Roots	EtOH	Acyl steryl glycosides (sitosteryl 3-β-O-glucoside 6’-O-palmitate and stigmasteryl 3-β-O-glucoside 6’-O-palmitate)	^[44]
Arthrocnemum indicum (Willd.) Moq., Salicornia brachiata Roxb., Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. and Suaeda monoica Forsk.		Glasswort for Salicornia genus, herbaceous seepweed for S. maritima, and South-Indian seepweed for S. monoica	India	Shoots of A. indicum and S. brachiata, and leaves of S. maritima and S. monoica	Dry MeOH/benzene/sulfuric acid (200:100:10, v/v)	FAME	^[45]
Alternanthera brasiliana		Brazilian joyweed	Brazil	Root, stem and leaves	EtOH and EtOAc	Linoleate oxylipins	^[46]
Phoenix dactylifera L.	Arecaceae	Date palm	India	Seeds	CHCl₃ and acetone	Sterol and triterpenes	^[47]
Asphodelus aestivus Brot.	Asphodelaceae (formerly Liliaceae)	Summer asphodel	Turkey	Seeds	Petroleum ether with Soxhlet extractor	FA (C4:0, 6:0, 8:0, 10:0, 16:0, 18:0, 21:0, 24:0, 14:1, 15:1, 18:1n9t, 20:1, 24:1, 18:2, 18:2n6t, 18:2n6c, 20:2n6, 20:3n3, 22:6n3, and others unidentified)	^[38]
Artemisia incisa Pamp.	Asteraceae		Pakistan	Roots	MeOH and recovered after elution on a SiO₂ column with CH₂Cl₂/MeOH (9:1, v/v) following previous elution with n-hexane/EtOAc (5:4, v/v)	Artemceramide-B	^[48]
Pteranthus dichotomus Forssk. (also known as P. echinatus Desf.)	Caryophyllaceae		Algerian Sahara	Aerial parts	MeOH/H₂O (80:20, v/v). Aqueous phase extracted successively with petroleum ether, EtOAc and n-BuOH. EtOAc fraction contained the sterols and steryl glycoside. BuOH fraction contained the glyceroglycolipids and the cerebroside.	BuOH fraction contained the compounds: 1-O-palmitoyl-3-O-(6-sulfo-α-D-quinovopyranosyl)-glycerol, 1,2-di-O-palmitoyl-3-O-(6-sulfo-α-D-quinovopyranosyl)-glycerol and soya cerebroside I. EtOAc fraction contained the compounds: stigmat-7-en-3-ol, spinasterol, β-sitosterol and β-sitosterol-3-O-glycoside	^[49]
Cucumis sativus L.	Cucurbitaceae	Cucumber	China	Stems	CHCl₃ fraction of the crude methanolic extract	Sphingolipids [(2S,3S,4R,10E)-2-[(2’R)-2-hydroxytetracosanoylamino]-1,3,4-octadecanetriol-10-ene, 1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(2S,3S,4R,10E)-2-[(2’R)-2-hydroxytetracosanoylamino]-1,3,4-octadecanetriol-10-ene and soya-cerebroside I]	^[50]
Excoecaria agallocha	Euphorbiaceae	Blind-your-eye mangrove	India	Leaves	Dry MeOH, benzene and sulfuric acid (200:100:10, v/v)	FAME	^[51]
Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach) and Pterocarpus angolensis (DC)	Fabaceae	Flat crown Albizia and African teak, respectively	Nigeria and Botswana, respectively	Heartwood of A. adianthifolia and stem bark of P. angolensis	n-hexane, CHCl₃, MeOH, and 10% MeOH (aq)	n-hexadecanoic acid (palmitic acid); oleic acid; chondrillasterol; stigmasterol, 24S 5α-stigmast-7-en-3-ol; 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-, methyl ester; trans-13-octadecanoic acid, methyl ester; tetradecanoic acid; hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester; octadecanoic acid	^[52]
Baphia massaiensis		Jasmine pea	Botswana	Seeds	n-hexane/1-propanol (3:1, v/v) with Soxhlet extractor	Seed oil (total FA)	^[53]
Cassia tora L. (or Senna tora L. Roxb.)		Sickle Senna	India	Leaves and stem	Petroleum ether with Soxhlet extractor	FA (the major were palmitic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, margaric acid, melissic acid, and behenic acid)	^[39]
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.		Fenugreek	India	Seeds	Supercritical fluid extraction (40–60 °C and 10–25 Mpa)	Conjugated linoleic acid methyl ester, saturated FAME, steroids	^[54]
Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus	Fagaceae	Banjh oak	India	Fruits	85% aqueous EtOH. Ethanolic extract fractionated with hexane and EtOAc using Soxhlet extractor. Hexane extract was analyzed.	FAME	^[40]
Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus	Fagaceae	Banjh oak	Garhwal region of Himalaya	Leaves and bark	MeOH	FA; linoleic acid in stem bark and leaves extracts and cis-vaccenic acid in stem bark	^[55]
Vitex altissima L., V. negundo L. and V. trifolia L.	Lamiaceae	Peacock chaste tree, Chinese chaste tree, and simpleleaf chastetree, respectively	India	Leaves	Dry MeOH/benzene/sulfuric acid (200:100:10, v/v)	FAME	^[56]
Linum usitatissimum L.	Linaceae	Common flax or linseed	Algeria	Seeds	Petroleum ether with Soxhlet extractor	FAME	^[41]
Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumee ex. Heyne	Malvaceae	Malva nut or Kembang semangkok	Malaysia	Stem bark	MeOH	Methyl hexadecanoate, hexadecanoic acid <n->	^[57]
Melastoma malabathricum L.	Melastomataceae	Planter’s rhododendron or Sendudok	Malaysia	Leaves	MeOH/H₂O (4:1, v/v), defatted with petroleum ether and extracted with CHCl₃. Lipids recovered after elution of the CHCl₃ extract by SiO₂ column with CHCl₃/acetone/MeOH (10:9:1, v/v).	Steryl glycoside: β-sitosterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	^[58]
Azadirachta indica A. Juss	Meliaceae	Neem	India	Leaves	MeOH. Recovered after elution on a SiO₂ column with CHCl₃/MeOH (9:1, v/v)	SQDG	^[59]
Azadirachta indica A. Juss		Neem	India	Leaves	Petroleum ether (60–80 °C) for 24 h and extracted thrice with MeOH for 48 h each time at room temperature	SQDG	^[60]
Carapa guianensis Aubl. and Carapa vasquezii Kenfack		Andiroba	Brazil	Seed oil	n-hexane with Soxhlet extractor	FA, FAME, squalene, β-sitosterol	^[42]
Ficus lutea Vahl	Moraceae	Giant-leaved fig or Lagos rubbertree	Cameroon	Woods	CH₂Cl₂/MeOH (1:1, v/v) and elution with EtOAc/10% MeOH	Glycosphingolipid [1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(2S,3R,5E,12E)-2N-[(2′R)-hydroxyhexadecanoyl]-octadecasphinga-5,12-dienine] named lutaoside	^[61]
Ficus pandurata Hance	Moraceae	Fiddle leaf fig	Egypt	Fruits	70% MeOH. MeOH extract fractionated on a SiO₂ column and purified by semi-preparative HPLC to afford pure ceramides	Ceramides [panduramides A-D, and newbouldiamide]	^[62]
Kunzea ericoides (A. Rich) J. Thompson	Myrtaceae	Kanuka (Maori), white manuka (Maori) or the white tea tree (English)	Australia	Leaves and twigs	CH₂Cl₂:MeOH (1:1, v/v), CH₂Cl₂:MeOH (2:1, v/v) and CH₂Cl₂ (neat)	Steryl esters, triacylglycerols, free FA, sterols, and phospholipids	^[63]
Pentagonia gigantifolia Ducke	Rubiaceae		Peru	Roots	95% EtOH. EtOH extract was fractionated on a SiO₂ column using CHCl₃/MeOH from 0% to 100% MeOH. Fraction eluted with 2% MeOH/CHCl₃ was separated on C18 SiO₂ using 85% to 90% MeOH.	Acetylenic acids: 6-octadecynoic acid and 6-nonadecynoic acid	^[64]
Hedyotis pilulifera (Pit.) T.N. Ninh	Rubiaceae		Vietnam	Aerial parts	MeOH at 60 °C, suspended in water and successively partitioned with CHCl₃ and EtOAc. EtOAc extract fractionated on a SiO₂ column.	Triterpenoids, steroids, FA, glycolipids, and a ceramide	^[65]
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Euphorbia hirta L., Terminalia chebula Retz.	Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Combretaceae	Ashwaganda, asthma-plant, black myrobalan	India	Fruits, leaf, stem, and root from W. somnifera and E. hirta and fruits, leaf, stem, and stem bark from T. chebula	EtOAc	Sterols fraction	^[66]
Kaempferia pandurata Roxb. (synonym of Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf.) and Senna alata (L.) Roxb.	Zingiberaceae and Fabaceae, respectively	Fingerroot and candle bush, respectively	Indonesia	Leaf of S. alata and rhizome of K. pandurata	EtOH (96%)	Sterols and triterpenoid	^[67]
Zygophyllum oxianum Boriss.	Zygophyllaceae	Beancaper	Uzbekistan	Leaves, stems, and fruit	Acetone and CHCl₃:MeOH (2:1, v/v) for total lipid extraction. Total lipids from each plant part separated in SiO₂ columns. Neutral lipids eluted with CHCl₃; glycolipids with acetone; phospholipids with MeOH.	Total lipid extract from leaves, stems and aerial organs (hydrocarbons, triterpenol and steryl esters, triacylglycerols, free FA, sterols, phospholipids)	^[68]

In order to obtain a class of lipids or a particular lipid, the total lipid extract can be fractionated into different groups of lipids, depending on the polarity of the compounds, by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) or by column chromatography. Thus, for example, to recover the neutral lipids (e.g., sterol esters and triacylglycerols) by column chromatography, the extract can be eluted with CHCl₃, followed by acetone to elute the glycolipids and, finally, with MeOH to elute the phospholipids, as mentioned for the leaves, stems and fruit of Zygophyllum oxianum ^[68]. The majority of the studies on antimicrobial plant lipids obtained and analyzed FA and their derivatives. FA have been isolated from a series of plant parts by using MeOH/benzene/sulfuric acid, 85% ethanol or supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with CO₂ and analyzed as FAME ^[40]^[43]^[45]^[51]^[54]^[56].

Mixtures of FA and FAME were obtained, but it was not clear if these FA were found in the free or esterified forms, since the derivatization methods (methylation) used in these studies convert free and esterified FA to FAME. However, because of their high abundance, presumably, the referred FA were esterified to other lipids. Several oxylipins were retrieved from roots, stems, and leaves of Brazilian joyweed (Alternanthera brasiliana) by extracting with EtOH and EtOAc ^[46]. Acetylenic FA were isolated from the roots of Pentagonia gigantifolia with 95% ethanol ^[64].

Other lipid classes isolated from plants for antimicrobial testing include sterols and sterol derivatives, glyceroglycolipids, and sphingolipids (Figure 1 and Table 1). The first group includes free sterols, steryl glycosides, and acyl steryl glycosides. Free sterols have been extracted together with triterpenes from the seeds of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) by using CHCl₃ and acetone ^[47], from several parts of Withania somnifera, Euphorbia hirta, and Terminalia chebula with EtOAc ^[66] and leaves of candle bush (Senna alata) and rhizomes of fingerroot (Kaempferia pandurata) with EtOH ^[67]. β-sitosterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, a steryl glycoside, was obtained from the leaves of Sendudok (Melastoma malabathricum) with CHCl₃/acetone/MeOH ^[58] and the acyl steryl glycosides sitosteryl 3-β-O-glucoside 6’-O-palmitate and stigmasteryl 3-β-O-glucoside 6’-O-palmitate were obtained from the roots of capotiraguá (Blutaparon portulacoides) with EtOH ^[44]. Glyceroglycolipids, namely sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerols (SQDG) were retrieved from neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves by extracting with MeOH and separating by SiO₂ column chromatography with CHCl₃/MeOH ^[59] or extracted with petroleum ether and re-extracted with MeOH ^[60].

In the group of sphingolipids, different chemical structures were identified belonging to different subclasses: ceramides and glycosphingolipids, also known as cerebrosides (Figure 1 and Table 1). Artemceramide-B was identified from the roots of Artemisia incisa after extraction with MeOH and recovered by SiO₂ column chromatography after elution of the extract with CH₂Cl₂/MeOH following previous elution with n-hexane/EtOAc ^[48]. A cerebroside (soya-cerebroside I), a sphingolipid glycoside (1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(2S,3S,4R,10E)-2-[(2’R)-2-hydroxytetracosanoylamino]-1,3,4-octadecanetriol-10-ene), and its aglycone form (2S,3S,4R,10E)-2-[(2’R)-2-hydroxytetra-cosanoylamino]-1,3,4-octadecanetriol-10-ene) were isolated from the stems of cucumber (Cucumis sativus) by CHCl₃ fractionation of the methanolic extract ^[50]. New glycosphingolipids were isolated and characterized from the fruits of fiddle leaf fig (Ficus pandurata), panduramides A–D and newbouldiamide ^[62], and from the woods of the giant-leaved fig (Ficus lutea), 1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(2S,3R,5E,12E)-2N-[(2′R)-hydroxyhexadecanoyl]-octadecasphinga-5,12-dienine, commonly named lutaoside ^[61]. All these compounds are inhibitors of microbial growth, except panduramides A–D and newbouldiamide that did not reveal any activity (Table 2).

Table 2. Antimicrobial activity of plant lipids or plant lipid-rich extracts.

Botanical Name	Tested (Micro)Organisms	Antimicrobial Testing Method/Evaluation	Reference Antimicrobial (Positive Control)	MIC, MBC, Diameter of Inhibition Zone (in mm) or Other	Isolated Lipids or Lipid Mixtures	Ref.
Sesuvium portulacastrum L.	G(+) bacteria: Bacillus subtilis NCIM 2063, B. pumilus NCIM 2327, Micrococcus luteus NCIM 2376 and S. aureus NCIM 2901; G(-) bacteria: P. aeruginosa NCIM 5031, K. pneumoniae NCIM 2957 and E. coli NCIM 2256. Ten isolates of MRSA and of MRSA NCTC 6571. Human pathogenic yeast type fungi: Candida albicans, C. krusei, C. tropicalis and C. parapsilosis and mould fungi: Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, and A. fumigatus	Inhibition zone (IZ) by disk diffusion test and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) by broth macrodilution method	Ciprofloxacin for bacteria, methicillin, oxacillin and vancomycin for MRSA and amphotericin-B for fungi	MIC: 0.25 mg/mL for B. subtilis, 0.5 mg/mL for S. aureus, MRSA, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae and C. albicans, and 1.0 mg/mL for E. coli; MBC: 0.5 mg/mL for B. subtilis, 1.0 mg/mL for S. aureus, MRSA and K. pneumoniae, and 2.0 mg/mL for P. aeruginosa and E. coli; MFC: 1 mg/mL for C. albicans	FAME	^[43]
Blutaparon portulacoides (A. St.-Hil.) Mears	Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania amazonensis, S. aureus ATCC 25923 and 7+ penicillinase producer, Streptococcus epidermidis (6ep), E. coli ATCC 10538, Streptococcus mutans (9.1), Streptococcus sobrinus (180.3)	Crude extracts and isolated compounds added to the trypomastigote-containing blood samples and incubated 24 h at 4 °C. Trypanocidal activity evaluated by counting the remaining trypomastigotes. L. amazonensis amastigote viability assessed colorimetrically by the reduction of a tetrazolium salt (MTT). Antimicrobial activity measured by the well-diffusionmethod in double layer	Gentian violet for trypanocidal activity and gentamicin for antibacterial assays	MIC: 100–500 μg/mL in T. cruzi trypomastigotes and 14–500 μg/mL in L. amazonensis amastigotes; 50 μg/mL in E. coli, S. aureus ATCC 25923, S. aureus (7+) and 500 μg/mL in S. epidermidis, S. mutans, and S. sobrinus	Acyl steryl glycosides (sitosteryl 3-β-O-glucoside 6’-O-palmitate and stigmasteryl 3-β-O-glucoside 6’-O-palmitate)	^[44]
Arthrocnemum indicum (Willd.) Moq., Salicornia brachiata Roxb., Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. and Suaeda monoica Forsk.	G(+) bacteria: B. subtilis NCIM 2063, B. pumilus NCIM 2327, M. luteus NCIM 2376, and S. aureus NCIM 2901; G(-) bacteria: P. aeruginosa NCIM 5031, K. pneumoniae NCIM 2957, and E. coli NCIM 2256; ten isolates of MRSA and of MRSA NCTC 6571; yeasts (C. albicans, C. krusei, C. tropicalis, and C. parapsilosis) and molds (A. niger, A. flavus, and A. fumigatus)	Disk diffusion method and broth macrodilution method	Ciprofloxacin for bacteria, methicillin, oxacillin and vancomycin for MRSA and amphotericin-B for fungi	MIC of 0.06 mg/mL of S. brachiata extracts against B. subtilis, S. aureus, and MRSA, and 0.5 mg/mL against P. aeruginosa; MIC of 0.5 mg/mL of all FAME extracts against E. coli and K. pneumoniae; MBC of 0.1 mg/mL of S. brachiata extracts against P. aeruginosa and of 1.0 mg/mL of all FAME extracts against E. coli and K. pneumoniae	FAME	^[45]
Alternanthera brasiliana	E. coli ATCC 25922, B. subtilis ATCC 6623, P. aeruginosa ATCC 15442, M. luteus ATCC 9341, and S. aureus ATCC 25923	Microdilution broth method according to NCCLS standardization	Tetracycline and norfloxacin	MIC: 50 μg/mL against B. subtilis, M. luteus, and S. aureus	Linoleate oxylipins	^[46]
Phoenix dactylifera L.	Bacillus cereus and E. coli	Disk diffusion method	Streptomycin	20 mm against E. coli and 17 mm against B. cereus at 1 mg/mL of the acetone extract	Sterol and triterpenes	^[47]
Asphodelus aestivus Brot.	G(+) bacteria: S. aureus ATCC 6538-p, E. faecalis ATCC 29212; G(-) bacteria: E. coli ATCC 29998, K. pneumoniae ATCC 13883, P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853); yeasts: C. albicans ATCC 10239 and C. krusei ATCC 6258	Disk diffusion method and broth microdilution tests according to the recommendations of Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI)	Ampicillin, ciprofloxacin and fluconazole	MIC: 512 μg/mL against S. aureus, E. faecalis, K. pneumoniae, and C. albicans	FA (4:0, 6:0, 8:0, 10:0, 16:0, 18:0, 21:0, 24:0, 14:1, 15:1, 18:1n9t, 20:1, 24:1, 18:2, 18:2n6t, 18:2n6c, 20:2n6, 20:3n3, 22:6n3, and others unidentified)	^[38]
Artemisia incisa Pamp.	S. epidermidis and S. aureus	Agar well diffusion method and MIC determined by a referenced method	Streptomycin and tetracycline	S. epidermidis (0.0157 mg/mL) and S. aureus (0.0313 mg/mL)	Artemceramide-B	^[48]
Pteranthus dichotomus Forssk. (also known as P. echinatus Desf.)	S. aureus ATCC 25923, E. coli ATCC 25922, K. pneumoniae ESBL, and Enterobacter sp. ESBL	Disk diffusion method	Gentamicin and ampicillin	P. dichotomus BuOH extracts at 0.25 g/mL (8 mm against E. coli, K. pneumoniae ESBL); P. dichotomus EtOAc extract at 0.5 g/mL (7 mm against E. coli), at 65 mg/mL (8.33 mm against S. aureus), and at 0.25 g/mL (7 mm against Enterobacter sp. ESBL)	BuOH fraction contained 1-O-palmitoyl-3-O-(6-sulfo-α-D-quinovopyranosyl)-glycerol, 1,2-di-O-palmitoyl-3-O-(6-sulfo-α-D-quinovopyranosyl)-glycerol and soya cerebroside I. EtOAc fraction contained stigmat-7-en-3-ol, spinasterol, β-sitosterol and β-sitosterol-3-O-glucoside	^[49]
Cucumis sativus L.	Phytopathogenic fungi (Pythium aphanidermatum, Botryosphaeria dothidea, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum, and Botrytis cinerea); phytopathogenic bacteria [G(-): Xanthomonas vesicatoria ATCC 11633, Pseudomonas lachrymans ATCC 11921, and G(+) B. subtilis ATCC 11562]	Mycelial radial growth inhibition assay and antifungal activity (pour plating method in potato dextrose agar medium) for fungi and agar-well diffusion assay for bacteria	Carbendazim for fungi and streptomycin sulfate for bacteria	5.5–100 inhibitory rate of mycelia growth inhibitory activity; IC₅₀ of B. subtilis (50.2–110.9 μg/mL), X. vesicatoria (25.6–64.5 μg/mL), P. lachrymans (15.3–37.3 μg/mL) for sphingolipids	Sphingolipids [(2S,3S,4R,10E)-2-[(2’R)-2-hydroxytetracosanoylamino]-1,3,4-octadecanetriol-10-ene, 1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(2S,3S,4R,10E)-2-[(2’R)-2-hydroxytetracosanoylamino]-1,3,4-octadecanetriol-10-ene and soya-cerebroside I]	^[50]
Excoecaria agallocha	G(+) bacteria: B. subtilis NCIM 2063, B. pumilus NCIM 2327, M. luteus NCIM 2376, S. aureus NCIM 2901; G(-) bacteria: P. aeruginosa NCIM 5031, K. pneumoniae NICM 2957, and E. coli NCIM 2256; yeasts: C. albicans, C. krusei, C. tropicalis, and C. parapsilosis	Disk diffusion method for antibacterial and antifungal susceptibility tests; MIC tested in Mueller-Hinton broth for bacteria and yeast nitrogen base for yeasts by two-fold serial dilution method	Ciprofloxacin and amphotericin B	MIC: 0.125 mg for B. subtilis and S. aureus, 0.5 mg for P. aeruginosa and K. pneumoniae, and 1.0 mg for E. coli; MBC: 0.25 mg for B. subtilis and S. aureus, 1.0 mg for P. aeruginosa and K. pneumoniae, and 2.0 mg for E. coli; MFC: 1 mg for C. albicans, C. krusei and C. parapsilosis	FAME	^[51]
Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach) and Pterocarpus angolensis (DC)	Bacteria (E. coli, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, S. aureus) and yeast (C. albicans)	Modified agar overlay method	Chloramphenicol for bacteria and miconazole for fungi	MIQ: 1 μg of n-hexane and CHCl₃ extracts of A. adianthifolia against E. coli; 50 μg of n-hexane and CHCl₃ extracts of A. adianthifolia against P. aeruginosa; 50 μg of CHCl₃ extract of P. angolensis against B. subtilis and 100 μg of n-hexane extract of P. angolensis against B. subtilis and C. albicans	n-hexadecanoic acid (palmitic acid); oleic acid; chondrillasterol; stigmasterol, 24S 5α-stigmast-7-en-3-ol; 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-, methyl ester; trans-13-octadecanoic acid, methyl ester; tetradecanoic acid; hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester; octadecanoic acid	^[52]
Baphia massaiensis	E. coli, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and C. albicans	Agar well diffusion method	Not mentioned	10 mm of inhibition zone against E. coli and S. aureus, and 16 mm against B. subtilis	Seed oil (total FA)	^[53]
Cassia tora L. (or Senna tora L. Roxb.)	MRSA, MSSA, B. subtilis, and P. aeruginosa	Broth microdilution method	Ampicillin	MIC for all bacteria between 125–1000 μg/mL	FA (the major were palmitic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, margaric acid, melissic acid, and behenic acid)	^[39]
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.	G(-) bacteria: E. coli and P. aeruginosa; G(+) bacteria: S. aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes; acid-fast bacteria: M. tuberculosis; fungi: C. albicans, A. niger and A. clavatus; parasite Plasmodium falciparum (etiological agent of malaria)	Antimicrobial activity assessed by broth dilution method, anti-tuberculosis activity assessed by the slope method, in vitro anti-malarial assay according to a microassay protocol	Gentamycin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin for bacteria; isoniazid and rifampicin for mycobacteria; nystatin and greseofulvin for fungi; chloroquine and quinine as anti-malarials	MIC values of 100, 250, 125 μg/mL towards E. coli, S. aureus, and S. pyogenes and P. aeruginosa, respectively. MFC value of 250 μg/mL of C. albicans. MIC value of 100 μg/mL toward M. tuberculosis and of 0.29 μg/mL toward P. falciparum	Conjugated linoleic acid methyl ester, saturated FAME, steroids	^[54]
Quercus leucotrichophora, A. Camus	G(+) bacteria: B. subtilis and S. aureus; G(-) bacteria: P. aeruginosa and E. coli	Disk diffusion method for antibacterial susceptibility tests; MIC was tested in Mueller-Hinton broth for bacteria by two-fold serial dilution method	Ciprofloxacin	MIC: 0.125 mg/mL for B. subtilis and S. aureus; 0.5 mg/mL for P. aeruginosa and 1.0 mg/mL for E. coli	FAME	^[40]
Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus	G(-) bacteria: E. coli MTCC-582 and P. aeruginosa MTCC-2295; G(+) bacteria: S. aureus MTCC-3160, B. subtilis MTCC-441 and S. pyogenes MTCC-1924	Disk diffusion method	Ampicillin	IZ of both extracts against all microorganisms: 8.53 ± 0.50 to 19.07 ± 0.31 mm	FA; linoleic acid in stem bark and leaves extracts and cis-vaccenic acid in stem bark	^[55]
Vitex altissima L., V. negundo L. and V. trifolia L.	Culex quinquefasciatus (early fourth-instar larvae)	Larvicidal activity analyzed according to standard procedures (WHO-VBC 81.807, 1981)	Not mentioned	V. trifolia (LC₅₀ = 9.26 ppm and LC₉₀ = 21.28 ppm)	FAME	^[56]
Linum usitatissimum L.	A. flavus MTTC 2799 and A. ochraceus CECT 2092	Determination of percent mycelial inhibition by growth radial technique on solid medium and by biomass technique on liquid medium	Not mentioned	Antifungal index of FAME in solid medium: 54.19 ± 0.85 at 10 μL in A. flavus and 40.48 ± 0.12 at 90 μL for A. ochraceus at 90 μL	FAME	^[41]
Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumee ex. Heyne	Mycobacterium smegmatis, E. coli, S. typhimurium, B. subtilis, and S. aureus	Inhibitory activity of the extract by disk diffusion method; broth microdilution assay (MTT assay) was used to determine the MIC; MBC was determined via streak plate method	Ampicillin and rifampicin	IZ of 10.67 ± 0.58 mm in S. aureus and of 9 mm in P. aeruginosa at 0.25 mg/mL. S. aureus showed the lowest MIC (0.78 mg/mL) and MBC (3.13 mg/mL). For M. smegmatis, MIC value was 3.13 mg/mL and MBC was 25 mg/mL	Methyl hexadecanoate, hexadecanoic acid <n->	^[57]
Melastoma malabathricum L.	S. aureus ATCC 25923, B. cereus ATCC 10876, P. aeruginosa ATCC 17853, S. typhi laboratory strain	Disk diffusion method	Rifampicin	P. aeruginosa (9 mm at 0.25 mg/mL), S. aureus (7 mm, 1 mg/mL), S. typhi (9 mm at 1 mg/mL), B. cereus (10.5 mm at 2 mg/mL)	Steryl glycoside: β-sitosterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	^[58]
Azadirachta indica A. Juss	Multidrug-resistant clinical isolates of S. aureus, Salmonella enterica serovar typhi, S. dysenteriae, E. coli, Vibrio cholerae, K. pneumoniae, and P. aeruginosa	MIC determined by microbroth dilution method and antibacterial sensitivity of SQDG determined by disk diffusion method (CLSI protocol)	Not mentioned	MIC of 32 μg/mL for S. typhi and two isolates of S. dysenteriae; MIC of 64 μg/mL for three isolates of S. typhi, E. coli and V. cholerae and 256 μg/mL for K. pneumoniae	SQDG	^[59]
Azadirachta indica A. Juss	Raillietina spp. (helminth parasite)	Ultrastructural changes by scanning electron microscopy	Praziquantel	Anthelmintic activity of SQDG with 0.5 and 1 mg/mL, respectively: paralysis time of 1 h and 0.7 h; death time of 1.6 h and 0.9 h	SQDG	^[60]
Carapa guianensis and Carapa vasquezii	Phytopathogenic fungi: A. flavus, A. niger, and F. oxysporum	Fungal mycelial growth inhibition trials developed in 96-well microtiter plates adding 10 μL of conidia suspensions (2 × 10⁵ conidia mL⁻¹) and 90 μL yeast peptone dextrose. Inhibition of germination observed under light microscopy	20 mM hydrogen peroxide	MIC (μg/mL): 125–250 of C. guianensis and 15.6–125 of C. vasquezii against the three phytopathogenic fungi	FA, FAME, squalene, β-sitosterol	^[42]
Ficus lutea Vahl	Mucor miehei and B. subtilis	Disk diffusion method	Nystatin	IZ of 17 mm for M. miehei; of 16 mm for B. subtilis; and of 12 mm for C. albicans exposed to 40 μg of compound	Glycosphingolipid [1-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(2S,3R,5E,12E)-2N-[(2′R)-hydroxyhexadecanoyl]-octadecasphinga-5,12-dienine] named lutaoside	^[61]
Ficus pandurata Hance	Yeast: C. albicans ATCC 90028, C. glabrata ATCC 90030, C. krusei ATCC 6258, A. fumigatus ATCC 90906, MRSA ATCC 33591, Cryptococcus neoformans ATCC 90113, S. aureus ATCC 2921, E. coli ATCC 35218, K. pneumoniae ATCC 13883, P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853, and Mycobacterium intracellulare ATCC 23068); chloroquine sensitive (D6, Sierra Leone) and resistant (W2, Indochina) strains of Plasmodium falciparum; parasite: Leishmania donovani promastigotes	Modified versions of the NCCLS methods	Antibacterial agent and antifungal agents not mentioned; antimalarial agents: chloroquine and artemisinin; anti-leishmanial agents: pentamidine and amphotericin B	No activity was observed for any compound	Ceramides [panduramides A-D, and newbouldiamide]	^[62]
Kunzea ericoides (A. Rich) J. Thompson	E. coli ATCC 25922 and S. aureus ATCC 25923	Broth microdilution method utilizing the redox dye resazurin	Not mentioned	0.625–10 mg/mL for S. aureus and more than 10 mg/mL in E. coli	Steryl esters, triacylglycerols, free FA, sterols and phospholipids	^[63]
Pentagonia gigantifolia Ducke	C. albicans ATCC 90028 and fluconazole-resistant C. albicans strains	MIC and MFC determined by using a modified version of the microdilution NCCLS methods; sphingolipid reversal assay	Amphotericin B, fluconazole and flucytosine	C. albicans ATCC 90028 (0.52 to 1.04 μg/mL)	Acetylenic acids: 6-octadecynoic acid and 6-nonadecynoic acid	^[64]
Hedyotis pilulifera (Pit.) T.N. Ninh	S. aureus NBRC 100910, B. subtilis NBRC 13719, M. smegmatis NBRC 13167	Microdilution method	Ampicillin	Oleanolic acid (MIC value of 2.5 μg/mL against M. smegmatis), rotungenic acid (MIC value of 2.5, 2.5, and 1.25 μg/mL against S. aureus, B. subtilis, and M. smegmatis, respectively), rotundic acid (MIC value of 5 μg/mL against B. subtilis)	Triterpenoids, steroids, FA, glycolipids, and a ceramide	^[65]
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Euphorbia hirta L., Terminalia chebula Retz.	E. coli MTCC 46, P. aeruginosa MTCC 1934), Proteus mirabilis MTCC 3310, Raoultella planticola MTCC 2271, Enterobacter aerogenes (now Klebsiella aerogenes) MTCC 2822, B. subtilis MTCC 121, S. aureus MTCC 3160	Disk diffusion method for antibiotic susceptibility testing. Broth microdilution method for determination of MIC values	Streptomycin	MIC: W. somnifera leaf (0.039 mg/mL on P. aeruginosa); T. chebula fruits and stems (0.039 mg/mL on E. coli) and T. chebula stems and fruits (0.039 mg/mL on S. aureus): MBC of 0.039 mg/mL of T. chebula bark on S. aureus	Sterols fraction	^[66]
Kaempferia pandurata Roxb. (synonym of Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf.) and Senna alata (L.) Roxb.	MRSA, extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL), and carbapenemase-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE)	Broth microdilution method	Tetracycline and vancomycin for MRSA, cefotaxime and meropenem for ESBL-producing bacteria and for CRE	MIC: K. pandurata extract (256 μg/mL) and S. alata extract (512 μg/mL) against MRSA	Sterols and triterpenoid	^[67]
Zygophyllum oxianum Boriss.	S. aureus ATCC 29213 and B. subtilis ATCC 6059	Modified disk diffusion method	Ampicillin, gentamicin sulfate, and nystatin	MIC: 2-mg leaves and stems extract (8 mm in S. aureus and 6 mm in B. subtilis, weak antibacterial activity); 2 mg-BuOH extract of whole air-dried aerial organs extract (5 mm in B. subtilis, 4 mm in E. coli and 20 mm in C. maltosa, good antifungal activity)	Total lipid extract from leaves, stems and aerial organs (hydrocarbons, triterpenol and steryl esters, triacylglycerols, free FA, sterols, phospholipids)	^[68]

Abbreviations: CLSI, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (formerly NCCLS); CRE, carbapenemase-resistant Enterobacteriaceae; ESBL, extended-spectrum beta-lactamase; FA, fatty acid; FAME, fatty acid methyl ester; G(-), Gram-negative; G(+), Gram-positive; IC₅₀, half maximal inhibitory concentration; IZ: inhibition zone; LC₅₀, concentration (ppm) at which 50% of larvae showed mortality; LC₉₀, concentration (ppm) at which 90% of larvae showed mortality; MBC, minimum bactericidal concentration; MFC, minimum fungicidal concentration; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; MIQ, minimum inhibition quantity; MRSA, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; MSSA, methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus; MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (tetrazolium dye); NCCLS, National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards; ppm, parts per million; SQDG, sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol.

The fractionation of the extracts has been usually carried out by column chromatography and the purification of the compounds can be achieved by semi-preparative HPLC.

Different analytical platforms have been used to identify and characterize the structure of lipids in plant extracts. Generally, in natural products research, several complementary methods are used, such as ¹H and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, gas chromatography (GC) coupled to a flame ionization detector (GC-FID) or to a mass spectrometer (GC-MS), as well as MS with electrospray ionization (ESI-MS). Liquid chromatography-MS (LC-MS) and LC-MS/MS has not been much used on antimicrobial plant lipids’ research, only for sphingolipids analysis ^[50] and for linoleate oxylipins’ structural characterization ^[46]. Besides these common techniques, two-dimensional NMR techniques (2-D NMR such as correlation spectroscopy-COSY, nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy-NOESY, heteronuclear single quantum coherence-HSQC, and heteronuclear multiple bond correlation-HMBC) have been used for the identification of artemceramide-D ^[48] and glyceroglycolipids ^[60]. Other methods are regularly used for the analysis of lipid extracts or their fractionation, such as TLC ^[41]^[58]^[50]^[63], column chromatography as mentioned above, or paper chromatography, but the information is very limited ^[58]. Analysis of FA is mostly performed by GC-FID or GC-MS, after derivatization. Total lipid extracts or lipid fractions are subjected to derivatization techniques using acid or alkaline hydrolysis or transmethylation to obtain FAME.

To identify and/or quantify mixtures of compounds, simpler techniques can be applied as biochemical assays using colorimetric tests, as for instance, for sterols’ and steryl glycosides’ identification and quantification ^[67]^[58]^[60]. The data obtained for compounds’ identification in these studies on antimicrobial plant lipids are normally compared with data reported in the literature, especially for spectroscopic data ^[60]^[65].

2.2. Susceptibility Testing, Inhibitory, and Microbicidal Activities of Plant Lipids

Several microbial strains were used in plant lipid studies, comprising Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, acid-fast bacteria, yeasts, filamentous fungi, parasitic protozoa, and some MDR strains and/or hospital isolated strains, such as MRSA (Table 2).

The lowest MIC against S. aureus were observed for the mixture of lipid classes from the aerial parts of Hedyotis pilulifera (1.25 µg/mL) ^[65], the artemceramide-B from the roots of A. incisa (0.0313 mg/mL) ^[48], the linoleate oxylipins isolated from Alternanthera brasiliana (50 µg/mL) ^[46], and the FAME extracted from the shoots of Salicornia brachiata (60 µg/mL, the same MIC also verified for a MRSA strain) ^[45]. In the case of artemceramide-B, its high inhibitory potential against S. aureus was assigned to this polar lipid bearing four hydroxyl groups and an amide linkage between two long aliphatic chains ^[48]. In the case of the linoleate oxylipins from A. brasiliana plant tissues, five isolated oxylipins were also found to be synthesized by endophytic Bacillus strains isolated from this plant. So, it was speculated that the antimicrobial activity of the oxylipins from this plant could be derived from the endophytic bacteria, supposing an ecological crosstalk between this plant and its endogenous microbiome ^[46]. Also, the LC-MS/MS approach was crucial to identify these antimicrobial compounds both in the plants and in the bacteria, shedding some light on the plant–bacteria interplay ^[46].

The FA from the extract of Cassia tora’s leaves and stems exhibited MIC between 200 and 1000 μg/mL against MRSA ^[39]. The minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) against MRSA were determined on FAME from the leaves of Excoecaria agallocha (0.25 mg against S. aureus) ^[51], for MRSA the leaves of Sesuvium portulacastrum (1.0 mg/mL) ^[52], and the hexadecanoate methyl and hexadecanoic acid <n-> obtained from the stem bark of Scaphium macropodum (3.13 mg/mL against S. aureus) ^[57].

Other studies have tested the antimicrobial activity of lipids against other pathogenic microorganisms of great relevance for the clinical area and included in WHO’s guidelines, such as those of the “ESKAPE” group. The lipid extracts with greater inhibiting capacity over Escherichia coli were the FA and their derivatives from n-hexane and CHCl₃ extracts of the heartwood of A. adianthifolia (1 µg) ^[52], and the acyl steryl glycosides obtained from roots of B. portulacoides (50 µg/mL) ^[44]. Also with low MIC values, the FAME extracted from the shoots of S. brachiata (0.5 mg/mL) ^[45] and the FAME and steroids from Trigonella foenum-graecum seeds (100 µg/mL) ^[54]. A MBC range between 1.0 and 2.0 mg/mL was verified for FAME extracts from the leaves of different plants ^[43]^[45]^[51].

Some lipid extracts were found to have low MIC against P. aeruginosa, as the FA and their derivatives obtained from the n-hexane and CHCl₃ extracts of the heartwood of A. adianthifolia (50 µg) ^[52], FAME and steroids from fenugreek seeds (T. foenum-graecum, 100 µg/mL) ^[54], and the SQDG extracted from the neem leaves (A. indica, 128 µg/mL) ^[59]. MBC toward P. aeruginosa between 0.1 and 2.0 mg/mL were verified for the extracts of FAME from leaves of different plants ^[43]^[45]^[51], similarly to the findings for the E. coli strains.

For strains of Salmonella typhimurium, a high MIC value of 25 mg/mL was obtained from the stem bark extract of S. macropodum which contained four compounds including two FA (hexadecanoate methyl and hexadecanoic acid <n->) ^[57]. The SQDG extracted from the neem leaves showed antimicrobial activity against MDR strains of Salmonella typhi and Shigella dysenteriae, both with a MIC range between 32 and 64 µg/mL, and also against MDR strains of E. coli (64–128 µg/mL), P. aeruginosa (128 µg/mL), S. aureus (128–256 µg/mL), and K. pneumoniae (256 µg/mL) ^[59]. Also, identical MIC values (0.5 mg/mL) of FAME extracts ^[43]^[45]^[51] and FA ^[38] from different plants were observed against K. pneumoniae.

Studies with Mycobacterium sp. demonstrated antimicrobial activity of extracts of fenugreek seeds that contained a mixture of FAME and steroids, having a MIC of 100 µg/mL against M. tuberculosis ^[54]. Activity against Mycobacterium smegmatis was also verified by extracts containing hexadecanoate methyl and hexadecanoic acid <n-> FA from the stem bark of Malva nut, S. macropodum (3.13 mg/mL) and a MBC of 6.25 mg/mL ^[57]. Finally, the triterpenoids oleanolic acid and rotungenic acid were found to have activity against M. smegmatis with a MIC of 2.5 µg/mL and 1.25 µg/mL, respectively ^[65].

The fenugreek seed extracts from which conjugated linoleic acid methyl ester, saturated FAME, and steroids were identified, showed an inhibitory effect against Plasmodium falciparum with a MIC of 0.29 µg/mL ^[54].

The glycolipid SQDG isolated from neem has a broad-spectrum of activity against MDR bacterial strains ^[59] and anti-helminthic activity ^[60], which proves to be a promising natural antimicrobial agent. This class of compounds isolated from neem has demonstrated antiviral activity (herpes simplex viruses, HSV-1 and HSV-2) ^[59], significant DNA binding properties ^[69], and anti-leukemic activity ^[70]. However, it is difficult to isolate a single compound or a class of compounds from complex matrices as plants. In most studies, the antimicrobial effects may be due to a synergistic effect between several natural antimicrobial compounds, and not just to the referred lipids. As such, more studies must be done to understand which lipids can effectively be responsible by the inhibitory or microbicidal effect and the structure–activity relationship.

3. Antimicrobial Lipids from Marine Organisms

The most studied antimicrobial compounds of marine origin are peptides and alkaloids ^[71]^[72]^[73], contrarily to lipids. However, lipids are ubiquitously distributed in the different marine phyla, being quite abundant in some of them. Besides, several lipid classes from marine organisms have been recognized by their biological activity with a high potential to discover new antimicrobial compounds.

3.1. Marine Algae

Algal biomass is mainly composed by minerals, sugars, proteins, and lipids, that represent 1–15%, depending on the algal species and its habitat. Lipids found in the macroalgae from the three phyla, Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Ochrophyta (Table 3), have demonstrated antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts, and fungi ^[74]^[75]^[76]^[77]^[78] (Table 4). Most of these antimicrobial lipids were isolated from Rhodophyta and Chlorophyta. While the former shows a high diversity of algal species as source of antimicrobial lipids, studies in Chlorophyta were focused on species belonging to the order Bryopsidales.

Table 3. Algae lipids and lipid-rich extracts with antimicrobial potential, their origin and extraction method.

Scientific Name	Collection Site	Extracting Solvent(s)/Method	Isolated Lipids or Lipid Classes	Methods for Compounds Identification	Ref.
Macroalgae–Chlorophyta
Caulerpa racemosa	Qionghai, Hainan, China	EtOH (95%). Extract partitioned with EtOAc and n-BuOH	SQDG [2S-1,2-di-O-palmitoyl-3-O-(6’sulfo-α-D-quinovopyranosyl) glycerol]	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS	^[79]
Caulerpa racemosa, Caulerpa lentillifera	Port Dickson, Malaysia	CHCl₃, MeOH	PUFA, MUFA, Terpenoids	LC-MS	^[80]
Caulerpa racemosa, Ulva fasciata	Buzios, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil	Acetone insoluble material extracted with CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1 and 1:2, v/v). Lipid extract partitioned on SiO₂ column, eluted with CHCl₃, acetone or MeOH	Glycolipid-rich extracts (Sulfoglycolipids, Glycosyldiacylglycerols)	HPTLC	^[81]
Caulerpa spp., Chlorodesmis fastigiata, Halimeda spp., Penicillus capitatus, Penicillus dumentosus, Penicillus pyriformis, Rhipocephalus phoenix, Udotea argentea, Udotea cyathiformis, Udotea flabellum, Udotea petiolata	Bahamas, Florida Keys, Puerto Rico, Belize, Guan, Hawaii, Australia, Mediterranean Sea	CH₂Cl₂. Chlorophylls removed with MgO₃Si. Fractionation with SiO₂ column and purification by HPLC	Sequiterpenoids, Diterpenoids	TLC, NMR, HPLC	^[82]
Chaetomorpha linum	IMTA, Mar Piccolo of Taranto, Italy	CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1, v/v), Soxhlet extractor, EtOH (95%)	Lipid extracts	¹H and ¹³C NMR, 1D and 2D NMR, GC-FID, TLC	^[83]
Codium amplivesiculatum	Bahía Magdalena, Mexico	CH₂Cl₂/EtOH (97:3, v/v). Liquid/liquid extraction CH₂Cl₂/H₂O. Fractionation with CH₂Cl₂. Crystallization in hot MeOH	Fraction with clerosterol as main constituent. Isolated clerosterol did not show activity	¹H NMR, IR	^[84]
Ulva fasciata	Malvan, India	EtOH, fractionated by neutral alumina column with EtOAc/MeOH	Sphingosine (major component: N-palmitoyl-2-amino-1,3,4,5-tetrahydroxyoctadecane)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, FAB-MS, IR	^[85]
	Malvan, India	EtOH (90%). Extract fractionated. n-hexane fraction chromatographed on SiO₂ and flash SiO₂	Ceramide (Erythro-sphinga-4,8-dienine-N-palmitate)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS, GC-MS, IR	^[86]
	Mediterranean Sea, Egypt	CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1, v/v). Glycolipid separation using acetone on SiO₂ column	Glycolipid-rich extracts (DGDG)	GC-FID, LC-MS/MS	^[87]
	Mediterranean Sea, Egypt	MeOH/CHCl₃ (2:1, v/v). Sulfolipid isolation: diethylaminoethyl-cellulose column eluted with CHCl₃/MeOH (6:4, v/v) and NH₃	Sulfolipids (SQDG)	GC-MS, GC-FID, LC-MS/MS, IR	^[75]
Ulva rigida	Cap Zebib and Ghar El Melh, Tunisia	CH₂Cl₂ and CH₂Cl₂/MeOH (1:1, v/v). Extracts fractionated on SiO₂ column and TLC with n-hexane/EtOAc/CH₂Cl₂/MeOH	FA	¹H and ¹³C NMR, GC	^[27]
Macroalgae–Rhodophyta
Chondria armata	Goa, West coast of India; Mumbai, India	MeOH and CHCl₃, Polar fractions: petroleum ether/EtOAc (1:1, v/v), MeOH/CHCl₃ (2:98, v/v), MeOH/CHCl₃ (5:95, v/v)	Neutral glycolipids [main compound MGDG(20:5/16:0)]	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS/MS	^[88]
Chondrus crispus, Gracilaria vermiculophylla, Porphyra dioica	IMTA and Portuguese coast, Portugal	EtOAc in Soxhlet extractor	FA	GC-FID	^[89]
Falkenbergia (heteromorphic sporophyte of Asparagopsis taxiformis)	Kollam coast, India	MeOH. Fractionation on SiO₂ column (petroleum ether/EtOAc and EtOAc/MeOH). Purification with TLC and RP HPLC	FA	GC-MS	^[90]
Galaxaura cylindrica, Laurencia papillosa	Red Sea, Egypt	CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1, v/v). Glycolipid separation using acetone on SiO₂ columns	Glycolipid-rich extracts (DGDG)	LC-MS/MS	^[87]
Galaxaura cylindrica, Laurencia papillosa	Red Sea, Egypt	MeOH/CHCl₃ (2:1, v/v). Sulfolipid isolation: diethylaminoethyl-cellulose column (CHCl₃/MeOH (6:4, v/v) and NH₃)	Sulfolipids (SQDG)	GC-MS, GC-FID, LC-MS/MS, IR	^[75]
Gigartina tenella	Sagami Bay, Kanagawa, Japan	Acetone. Extract partitioned with EtOAc/H₂O (3:1, v/v). Organic layer dissolved in EtOAc/MeOH/H₂O (100:20:5, v/v) and chromatographed on SiO₂ column	Glycolipid (Sulfolipids)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, HR-FAB-MS	^[91]
Gracilaria gracilis	Ganzirri lagoon and Margi channel, Eastern Sicily, Italy	CHCl₃, Et₂O in Soxhlet extractor	FA	GC-FID	^[92]
Gracilariopsis longissima	Mar Piccolo of Taranto, Italy	CHCl₃/MeOH/H₂O (2:1:1, v/v)	FA	¹H and ¹³C NMR, 1D and 2D NMR, GC-FID	^[93]
Hypnea musciformis, Osmundaria obtusiloba, Porphyra acanthophora, Pterocladiella capillacea	Buzios, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil	Acetone insoluble material extracted with CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1 and 1:2, v/v). Extract partitioned on SiO₂ column (CHCl₃, acetone or MeOH)	Glycolipid-rich extracts (Sulfolipids, Glycosyldiacylglycerols)	HPTLC	^[81]
Jania corniculata, Laurencia papillosa	Suez Canal, Egypt	EtOH (70%), CH₂Cl₂	FA	GC-MS	^[94]
Laurencia okamurai	Nanji Island in the East China Sea, Zhejiang Province, China	EtOH (95%) extract partitioned with Et₂O and fractionated by SiO₂ (gradient system: petroleum ether –CH₂Cl₂ (10:0 → 1:9)), Sephadex column, and purification by semi-preparative C18 HPLC	FA ethyl esters [(9Z,12Z,15Z,18Z,21Z)-ethyl tetracosa-9,12,15,18,21-Pentaenoate, (10Z,13Z)-ethyl nonadeca-10,13-dienoate, (9Z,12Z)-ethyl nonadeca-9,12-dienoate, (Z)-ethyl octadec-13-enoate (4), and (Z)-ethyl hexadec-11-enoate]	¹H and ¹³C NMR, 1D and 2D NMR, IR, HR-EI-MS	^[95]
Laurencia spp.	Pulau Tioman, Pahang, Pulau Karah, Terengganu, Pulau Nyireh, Terengganu, Malaysia	MeOH. Extract partitioned with Et₂O and H₂O and fractionated by SiO₂ column (hexane/EtOAc)	Sesquiterpenes (Halogenated sesquiterpenes)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, LREIMS, HREIMS	^[96]
Osmundaria obtusiloba	Buzios, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil	Acetone insoluble material extracted with CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1 and 1:2, v/v). Extract partitioned (CHCl₃/MeOH/0.75% KCl (8:4:3, v/v)). Fractionation on SiO₂ column (CHCl₃, acetone and MeOH). MeOH fraction purified on SiO₂ column (CHCl₃/MeOH, 90:10, v/v)	Glycolipids (Sulfoglycolipids)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS/MS	^[97]
Palmaria palmata, Grateloupia turuturu	Batz-sur-Mer, France	CH₂Cl₂/MeOH (2:1, v/v), MeOH/H₂O (1:1, v/v)	Polar lipids	¹H and ¹³C NMR	^[98]
Pyropia orbicularis	Maitencillo, Chile	MeOH, acetone, CH₂Cl₂, n-hexane. Soxhlet extractor. n-hexane extract fractionated on SiO₂ column (2, 10, 20, 30 and 100% acetone)	Phospholipids (main compounds PC-O, PE, PS, PI, SM, GlCer), Glycolipids (MGDG), Triacylglycerol, DAG	LC-ESI-MS/MS	^[99]
Sphaerococcus coronopifolius	Atlantic coast of Morocco	MeOH/CH₂Cl₂. Extract separated on SiO₂ column (hexane, gradients of hexane/CH₂Cl₂ and CH₂Cl₂/acetone, and MeOH)	Bromoditerpenes (Sphaerolabdadiene-3,14-diol (1), Sphaerococcenol)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, HRMS, EIMS, CIMS, FTIR, UV	^[100]
Macroalgae–Ochrophyta
Dictyota cervicornis, Dictyota menstrualis	Buzios, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil	Acetone insoluble material extracted with CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1 and 1:2, v/v). Extract partitioned on SiO₂ column (CHCl₃, acetone or MeOH)	Glycolipid-rich extracts (Sulfoglycolipids, Glycosyldiacylglycerols)	HPTLC	^[81]
Dictyota fasciola, Taonia atomaria	Mediterranean Sea, Egypt	CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1, v/v). Glycolipid separation using acetone on SiO₂ column	Glycolipid-rich extracts (DGDG)	GC-FID, LC-MS/MS	^[87]
Dictyota fasciola, Taonia atomaria	Mediterranean Sea, Egypt	MeOH/CHCl₃ (2:1, v/v). Sulfolipid isolation: diethylaminoethyl-cellulose column (CHCl₃/MeOH (6:4, v/v) and NH₃)	Glycolipids (Sulfolipids)	GC-MS, GC-FID, LC-MS/MS, IR	^[75]
Fucus evanescens	West coast of Ungava Bay, Canada	EtOAc (99%), CH₂Cl_2. EtOAc algal extract acetylated and organic layer purified by flash chromatography (0% → 50% EtOAc in hexane and flushed with 100% EtOAc and 5% MeOH in 95% EtOAc)	Glycolipid-rich extracts	¹H and ¹³C NMR	^[101]
Himanthalia elongata	Las Palmas, Spain	Pressurized liquid extraction Hexane, EtOH, H₂O	Sterol (Fucosterol), FA	GC-MS, HPLC-DAD	^[102]
Laminaria cichorioides	Khasan region of the Primorskii Territory, in the Troitsa Gulf (the Sea of Japan), Russia	EtOH (96%). Lipophilic fraction extracted with CHCl₃. Fractionation of lipid classes on SiO₂ column	Glycolipids (MGDG, DGDG, SQDG), Free FA, PUFA		^[77]
Sargassum dentifolium	Suez Canal, Egypt	EtOH (70%), CH₂Cl₂	FA	GC-MS	^[94]
Sargassum fusiforme, Sargassum vulgare	Red Sea, Egypt	Et₂O, MeOH, EtOH, CHCl₃	Terpenoids, FA	GC-MS	^[103]
Sargassum pallidum	Trinity Bay in the Peter the Great Gulf, Russia	EtOH; EtOH/acetone (1:1, v/v), EtOH/CHCl₃ (1:1, v/v). Fractionation of lipid classes on SiO₂ column (hexane, Et₂O/hexane with increasing ether concentration (95:5 → 50:50, v/v) and CHCl₃)	Glycolipids (MGDG, SQDG; DGDG), Free FA/Esters, Triacylglycerols, DAG		^[104]
Sargassum vulgare	Sepetiba Bay, Brazil	CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1 and 1:2, v/v). Fractionated on SiO₂ column (CHCl₃, acetone and MeOH)	Glycolipid-rich extracts (Sulfoglycolipids)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS-MS	^[105]
Sargassum wightii	Gulf of Mannar, India	MeOH. Isolation on SiO₂ column (hexane/EtOAc, EtOAc/MeOH). Purification on flash SiO₂ column (CHCl₃/MeOH gradients)	Glycolipid (Sulfoglycerolipid, 1-O-palmitoyl-3-O(6′-sulfo-α-quinovopyranosyl)-glycerol)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, IR	^[106]
Microalgae
Chaetoceros muelleri		Supercritical fluid extraction, EtOH (99.5%)	Triacylglycerol, DAG, MAG, sterols (cholesterol), FA	HPLC-ELSD, GC-FID	^[107]
Chlorococcum HS-101	Japan	MeOH extract, partitioned with hexane. SiO₂ column (MeOH/CHCl₃ gradient). Active fraction recovered with MeOH/CHCl₃ (5:95, v/v)	FA	¹H and ¹³C NMR, GC-MS	^[108]
Dunaliella salina	Jerusalem, Israel	Pressurized liquid extracts: hexane, petroleum ether, EtOH	FA Sesquiterpenoids (Neophytadiene), Diterpenoid (Phytol)	GC-MS	^[109]
Navicula delognei	Lepreau Ledges, New Brunswick, Canada	MeOH, CHCl₃, extract chromatographed on SiO₂ column (CHCl₃ and CHCl_3/MeOH)	FA [(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)-hexadecatetraenoic acid, (6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)-octadecatetraenoic acid), Ester ((E)-phytol (5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z)-eicosapentaenoate]	¹H and ¹³C NMR, GC-MS	^[110]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum	Experimental Phycology and Culture Collection of Algae at the University of Göttingen (Germany)	EtOAc and MeOH extracts applied to SiO₂ Sep Pak cartridges. EtOAc extract eluted with 10% step increases of hexane/EtOAc until 100% EtOAc. MeOH extract eluted with 10% step increases of EtOAc/MeOH until 100% MeOH	Free FA (palmitoleic acid, HTA)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS	^[111]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum		MeOH/H₂O (5:1, v/v). Extract redissolved in MeOH (70%) and fractioned on Sep Pak cartridge (MeOH (70%) followed by constant volumes of MeOH (5% steps → 100%)). Fractionated by RP HPLC	FA (EPA)	¹H NMR, ESI-MS	^[112]
Synechocystis sp.	Las Palmas, Spain	Pressurized liquid extraction: hexane, EtOH, H₂O	FA, Sesquiterpenoids (Neophytadiene)	GC-MS, HPLC-DAD	^[102]

Table 4. Antimicrobial activity of algae lipids or algae lipid-rich extracts.

Scientific Name	Antimicrobial Activity	Tested Microorganisms	Antimicrobial Testing Method/Evaluation	Reference Antimicrobial (Positive Control)	MIC, MBC, Diameter of Inhibition Zone (IZ, in mm) or Other	Ref.
Macroalgae–Chlorophyta
Caulerpa racemosa	Antiviral	Viruses: Cox B3, HSV	Cytopathic effect (CPE) reduction assay, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) method	Acyclovir (HSV), Ribavirin (Cox B3)	IC₅₀/CC₅₀ (µg/mL)/SI Cox B3: 31.3/500/16 HSV: 7.9/250	^[79]
Caulerpa racemosa, Caulerpa lentillifera	Antibacterial	G(+):MRSA (MTCC 381123) G(-): E. coli K1 (MTCC 710859)	Disk diffusion method, crude extracts (CHCl₃ and MeOH)	Penicillin-streptomycin	PI: 97.7% (C. racemosa)	^[80]
Caulerpa racemosa, Ulva fasciata	Antiviral	Viruses: HSV-1-ACVs, HSV-1-ACVr	Titer reduction			^[81]
Caulerpa spp., Chlorodesmis fastigiata, Halimeda spp., Penicillus capitatus, Penicillus dumentosus, Penicillus pyriformis, Rhipocephalus phoenix, Udotea argentea, Udotea cyathiformis, Udotea flabellum, Udotea petiolata	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(-):Serratia marinoruba, Vibrio splendida, V. harveyi, V. leiognathi, Vibrio sp. Undescribed bacteria: VJP Cal8101, VJP Cal8102, VJP Cal8103 Fungi: Leptosphaeria sp. Lulworthia sp., Alternaria sp., Dreschleria haloides, Lindra thallasiae, Undescribed fungi: VJP Cal8104, VJP Cal8105	Plate assay-disk method		IZ (mm) > 2	^[82]
Chaetomorpha linum	Antibacterial	G(+): Pseudomonas sp., Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus agalactiae, Enterococcus sp. G(-): Vibrio alginolyticus, V. harveyi, V. mediterranei, V. ordalii, V. parahaemolyticus, V. salmonicida, V. vulnificus Yeast: C. albicans, Candida famata, C. glabrata	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) V. ordalii: 8–12 V. vulnificus: 8–12	^[83]
Codium amplivesiculatum	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus (ATCC BAA-42, resistant to methicillin, penicillin, ampicillin/sulbactam, oxacillin, cefalotine) G(-): V. parahaemolyticus (17802)	Disk diffusion method		MIC (µg/mL)/IZ (mm) S. aureus: 125/15 V. parahaemolyticus: >250/8	^[84]
Ulva fasciata	Antiviral	Virus: Semeliki Forest Virus (SFV)			20 mg/mouse/7 days by giving 50% protection	^[85]
	Antiviral	Viruses: Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virus	96-well microtiter plates		CC₅₀ (µg/mL)/EC₅₀ (µg/mL)/TI JEV: 7.8/3.9/2.0	^[86]
	Antifungal, Antiviral	Yeast: C. albicans; Fungus: A. niger Virus: HSV-1	Disk diffusion method; plaque reduction assay (antiviral)		MIC (µg/mL)/IZ (mm) C. albicans: 60/8, A. niger: 80/13 HSV-1: 9.37–15.62%	^[87]
	Antibacterial, Antiviral	G(+):B. subtilis RRL B-94 G(-): E. coli NRRL B-3703 Virus: HSV-1	Disk diffusion method	Chloramphenicol (bacteria), Acyclovir (virus)	MIC (µg/mL)/IZ (mm) PI(%) E. coli: 60/13 B. subtilis: 40/16 HSV-1: 18.75–46.87%	^[75]
Ulva rigida	Antibacterial	G(+): S. agalactiae, S. aureus (ATCC 25923), S. aureus (ATCC 6538), E. faecalis (ATCC 29212), Micrococcus sp. G(-): Vibrio tapetis (CECT4600), V. anguillarum (ATCC 12964T), V. alginolyticus (ATCC 17749T), E. coli O126-B16 (ATTC 14948), E. coli (ATCC 25922), E. coli (ATCC 8739), Pseudomonas cepacia, P. fluorescens (AH2), P. aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), Aeromonas salmonicida (LMG3780), A. hydrophila B3, S. typhimurium (C52) Yeast: C. albicans (ATCC10231)	Disk diffusion method and broth microdilution technique		IZ (mm) 6.3–16.3	^[27]
Macroalgae–Rhodophyta
Chondria armata	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): S. aureus G(-): E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. typhi, Salmonella flexneri, Klebsiella sp., V. cholerae Yeast: C. albicans, C. neoformans, Rhodotorula sp. Fungi: Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger	Disk diffusion method	Streptomycin, Nystatin	1 < IZ ≤ 4	^[88]
Chondrus crispus, Gracilaria vermiculophylla, Porphyra dioica	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): Listeria innocua (NCTC 11286), B. cereus (ATCC 11778), E. faecalis (LMG S 19456 5002), Lactobacillus brevis (LMG 6906), S. aureus (ATCC 6538), MRSA G(-): E. coli (ATCC 8739), Salmonella enteritidis (ATCC 3076), P. aeruginosa (ATTC 10145) Yeast: Candida spp. (CCUG 49242)	Disk diffusion method	Ampicillin (L. innocua), Cycloheximide (Candida spp.), Chloramphenicol (other microorganisms)	IZ (mm) C. crispus: 5 < IZ ≤ 20 G. vermiculophylla: 10 < IZ ≤ 15 P. dioica: 5 < IZ ≤ 12	^[89]
Falkenbergia (heteromorphic sporophyte of Asparagopsis taxiformis)	Antibacterial	G(+): S. epidermidis, S. aureus, B. subtilis G(-): V. vulnificus (MTCC 1145), V. parahaemolyticus (MTCC 451), V. harveyi (MTCC 3438), V. alginolyticus (MTCC 4439), V. alcaligenes (MTCC 4442), P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae	Broth dilution method	Chloramphenicol, Nalidixic acid	IZ (mm)/MIC (µg)/MBC (µg) S. epidermidis: 21/1250/270 S. aureus: 21/750/170 B. subtilis: 23/750/180 V. vulnificus: 31/750/90 V. parahaemolyticus: 28/750/110 V. harveyi: 26/750/60 V. alginolyticus: 32/500/80 V. alcaligenes: 33/500/50 P. aeruginosa: 19/1250/420 K. pneumoniae: 15/1250/380	^[90]
Galaxaura cylindrica, Laurencia papillosa	Antiviral	Virus: HSV-1	Plaque reduction assay	Acyclovir	Inhibition (%) L. papillosa: 9.37–31.25 G. cylindrica: 15.62–28.12	^[87]
Galaxaura cylindrica, Laurencia papillosa	Antibacterial, Antiviral	G(+): B. subtilis NRRL B-94 G(-): E. coli NRRL B-3703 Virus: (HSV-1)	Disk diffusion method	Chloramphenicol (bacteria), Acyclovir (virus)	MIC (µg/mL)/IZ (mm) PI(%) L. papillosa E. coli: -/8 B. subtilis: -/11 HSV-1: 40.62–59.37% G. cylindrica E. coli: 80/11 B. subtilis: 80/11 HSV-1: 45.87–59.37%	^[75]
Gigartina tenella	Antiviral	HIV-reverse transcriptase type 1			IC₅₀ 11.2 µM	^[91]
Gracilaria gracilis	Antibacterial	G(+): B. subtilis G(-): V. fischeri, V. cholerae, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella sp., A. hydrophila	Disk diffusion method	Chloramphenicol	MIC: 5 µg/disk IZ (mm) B. subtilis 10.3–17.6 (CHCl₃)/10–15.6 (Et₂O)	^[92]
Gracilariopsis longissima	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): S. agalactiae, Enterococcus sp. G(-): P. aeruginosa, V. salmonicida, V. fluvialis, V. vulnificus, V. cholerae non-O1, V. alginolyticus Yeast: C. albicans, C. famata, C. glabrata	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) V. alginolyticus: 25 V. fluvialis: 8 V. vulnificus: 15 V. cholerae non-O-1:10	^[93]
Hypnea musciformis, Osmundaria obtusiloba, Porphyra acanthophora, Pterocladiella capillacea	Antiviral	Virus: HSV-1-ACVs, HSV-1-ACVr	Titer reduction		PI(%)/VII O. obtusiloba ACVs-HSV-1: 82.2–99.5/0.75–2.35 HSV-1-ACVr: 99.7–99.9/2.5–4.5	^[81]
Jania corniculata, Laurencia papillosa	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): B. subtilis, Staphylococcus albus, E. faecalis G(-): E. coli Yeast: C. albicans Fungus: A. flavus	Disk diffusion method		11 < IZ ≤ 15 No IZ (A. flavus)	^[94]
Laurencia okamurai	Antifungal	Yeast: C. neoformans (32609), C. glabrata (537) Fungi: Trichophyton rubrum (Cmccftla), A. fumigatus (07544)	Broth dilution method	Amphotericin B, fluconazole, voriconazole, ketoconazole	MIC₈₀ (µg/mL) C. neoformans: 8–64 C. glabrata: 4–64 A. fumigatus: >64 T. rubrum: 64	^[95]
Laurencia spp.	Antibacterial	G(-): Chromobacterium violaceum, P. mirabilis, P. vulgaris, Erwinia sp., V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus	Disk diffusion method		MIC (µg/disk) C. violaceum: 10–40 P. mirabilis: 20–40 P. vulgaris: 20–40 Erwinia sp.: 10–30 V. parahaemolyticus: 20–40 V. alginolyticus: 20–30	^[96]
Osmundaria obtusiloba	Antiviral	Virus: HSV-1, HSV-2	Titer reduction	Acyclovir	EC₅₀ (µg/mL)/SI/PI(%) HSV-1: 42/1.7/75 HSV-2: 12/6/96	^[97]
Palmaria palmata, Grateloupia turuturu	Antibacterial	G(-): V. harveyi ORM4	Broth microdilution method		0.2 < PI ≤ 7.9%	^[98]
Pyropia orbicularis	Antibacterial	G( + ): S. aureus, B. cereus G(-): E. coli	Disk diffusion method	Kanamycin	16 < IZ < 26	^[99]
Sphaerococcus coronopifolius	Antibacterial, Antiplasmodial	G(+): S. aureus (ATCC # 6538) Parasitic protozoa: P. falsciparum (FCB1)	Antibacterial: Disk-diffusion, Antimalarial: inhibition of [³H]-hypoxanthine uptake by P. falsciparum cultured in human blood		S. aureus-MIC: 0.104–0–146 µM P. falciparum-IC₅₀: 1 µM	^[100]
Macroalgae–Ochrophyta
Dictyota cervicornis, Dictyota menstrualis	Antiviral	Virus: HSV-1-ACVs, HSV-1-ACVr	Titer reduction			^[81]
Dictyota fasciola, Taonia atomaria	Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiviral	G(+): B. subtilis G(-): E. coli Fungi: C. albicans, A. niger Virus: HSV-1	Disk diffusion method (antibacterial); Plaque reduction assay (antiviral)		D. fasciola: Inhibition (%) HSV-1: 50.00–81.25% T. atomaria: MIC (µm/mL)/IZ(mm) B. subtilis: 80/9, E. coli: 80/7, C. albicans: 80/10, A. niger: 60/12 Inhibition (%) HSV-1: 31.25–34.37%	^[87]
Dictyota fasciola, Taonia atomaria	Antibacterial, Antiviral	G(+):B. subtilis NRRL B-94 G(-): E. coli NRRL B-3703 Virus: HSV-1	Disk diffusion method (antibacterial); Plaque reduction assay (antiviral)	Chloramphenicol (bacteria), Acyclovir (virus)	MIC (µg/mL)/IZ (mm) PI(%) D. fasciola E. coli: -/8 B. subtilis: -/10 HSV-1: 46.87–70.12% T. atomaria: E. coli: 60/15 B. subtilis: 40/13 HSV-1: 43.75–56.25%	^[75]
Fucus evanescens	Antibacterial	G(+): B. cereus, Clostridium difficile, MRSA, Propionibacterium acnes (ATCC and clinical isolate), S. pyogenes G(-): Acinetobacter baumannii, E. coli, Haemophilus influenzae, K. pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, P. aeruginosa	Disk diffusion method		MIC₁₀₀: 50 µg/mL	^[101]
Himanthalia elongata	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus ATCC 25923, G(-): E. coli ATCC 11775 Yeast: C. albicans ATCC 60193 Fungi: A. niger ATCC 16404	Broth microdilution method		MBC (mg/mL) S. aureus: 6.25 E. coli: 6.00 MFC (mg/mL) C. albicans: 8 A. niger: 12	^[102]
Laminaria cichorioides	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): S. aureus ATCC 21027 G(-): E. coli ATCC 15034 Yeast: Safale S04, C. albicans KMM 455 Fungi: A. niger KMM 4634, F. oxysporum KMM 4639	Disk diffusion method	Fucoxanthin, Nitrofungin	IZ (mm) S. aureus: 2–5 E. coli:1–6 C. albicans: 1–6 A. niger: 1–3 F. oxysporum: 1–4	^[77]
Sargassum dentifolium	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): B. subtilis, S. albus, E. faecalis G(-): E. coli Yeast: C. albicans Fungus: A. flavus	Disk diffusion method		11 < IZ (mm) ≤ 12 No IZ (A. flavus)	^[94]
Sargassum fusiforme, Sargassum vulgare	Antibacterial	Multidrug resistant: S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, Shigella flexneri, E. coli, Corynebacterium sp.	Agar well diffusion		9.33 < IZ (mm) ≤ 23.33 MIC: 50–100 mg/mL	^[103]
Sargassum pallidum	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): S. aureus ATCC 21027 G(-): E. coli ATCC 15034 Yeast: C. albicans KMM 455 Fungi: A. niger KMM 4634, F. oxysporum KMM 4639, Septoria glycines	Agar well diffusion		IZ (mm) S. aureus: 0.7–14.5 E. coli: 0.5–6.7 C. albicans: 1.0–4.5 A. niger: 2.0–5.7 F. oxysporum: 1.0–5.2 S. glycines: 2.0–5.7	^[104]
Sargassum vulgare	Antiviral	Virus: HSV-1, HSV-2	Titer reduction	Acyclovir	PI (%) HSV-1: 96.0–99.9 HSV-2: 99.9	^[105]
Sargassum wightii	Antibacterial	Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae CAS ar01	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm): 3.0–13.5	^[106]
Microalgae
Chaetoceros muelleri	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): Staphyloccocus aureus (ATCC 25923) G(-):E. coli (ATCC 11775) Yeast: C. albicans (ATCC 60193)	Broth microdilution method	Chloramphenicol, Amphotericin B	MBC (mg/mL) E. coli: 12–15 S. aureus: 12–17 C. albicans: 7–9	^[107]
Chlorococcum HS-101	Antibacterial	G(+): MRSA, S. aureus ATCC 25923	Disk diffusion method	Gentamicin, Amikacin, Cephalosporin, Habekacin, Ampicillin, Vancomycin, Oxytetracyclin, Erythromycin, Cefmetazole, Fosfomycin, Imipenem, Minomycin	IZ (mm): 18.7–28.3	^[108]
Dunaliella salina	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): S. aureus ATCC 25923 G(-): E. coli ATCC 11775 Yeast: C. albicans ATCC 60193 Fungi: A. niger ATCC 16404	Disk diffusion method	Chloramphenicol (bacteria), Amphotericin B (yeast and fungi)	MBC (mg/mL) E. coli: 6–30 S. aureus: 8–30 MFC (mg/mL) C. albicans: 12–30 A. niger: 32–>35	^[109]
Navicula delognei f. elliptica	Antibacterial	G(+): Staphyloccus aureus (ATCC 25923), S. epidermidis (ATCC 12228) G(-): S. typhimurium (ATCC 14028), P. vulgaris (ATCC 13315), Enterobacter cloacae (ATCC 23355), E. coli (ATCC 25922), K. pneumoniae (ATCC 13883), Serratia marcescens (ATCC 8100)	Disk diffusion method	Ampicillin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol	IZ (mm) S. aureus >4 S. typhimurium >4 S. epidermidis >2 P. vulgaris >2 E. coli IZ noticeable No IZ (E. cloacae, K. pneumoniae, S. marcescens)	^[110]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+): S. aureus (SH1000), Bacillus weihenstephanensis (10390), MRSA 252, MRSA 16a, S. epidermidis, M. luteus (NCIMB 9278), Planococcus citreus (NCIMB 1493), B. cereus (883-00) G(-): Alteromonas haloplanktis (NCIMB 19), A. hydrophila (NCIMB 1108), Photobacterium phosphoreum (NCIMB 64), Psychrobacter immobilis (NCIMB 308), Listonella anguillarum (MT1637), E. coli B, P. aeruginosa (NCIMB 10775) Yeast: C. glabrata, Candida neoformis, Candida sp., Saccharomyces cerevisiae BY4741a	Disk diffusion method	Ampicillin	IC₅₀ (µM)/MBC (µM) S. aureus: 10–40/40–80	^[111]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum	Antibacterial, Antifungal	G(+):M. luteus (NCIMB 9278), Planococcus citreus (NCIMB 1493), B. cereus (883-00), S. aureus (SH1000), B. weihenstephanensis (10390), MRSA 252, MRSA16a, S. epidermidis G(-): Alteromonas haloplanktis (NCIMB 19), A. hydrophila (NCIMB 1108), Photobacterium phosphoreum (NCIMB 64), Psychrobacter immobilis (NCIMB308), Listonella anguillarum (MT1637), E. coli B, P. aeruginosa (NCIMB 10775) Yeast:C. glabrata, C. neoformis, Candida sp., S. cerevisiae BY4741a	Agar well diffusion		Growth inhibition (mm²) ≤50–>50 S. aureus: 25–190 mm²	^[112]
Synechocystis sp.	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus ATCC 25923 G(+): E. coli ATCC 11775, Yeast: C. albicans ATCC 60193 Fungi: A. niger ATCC 16404	Broth microdilution method		MBC (mg/mL) S. aureus: 7 E. coli: 5.6 MFC (mg/mL) C. albicans: 12 A. niger: 14	^[102]

Abbreviations: CC: cytotoxic concentration; EC: effective concentration; HSV: herpes simplex virus; IC: inhibitory concentration; IZ: inhibition zone; MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration; MBC: minimum bactericidal concentration; MFC: minimum fungicidal concentration; MRSA: methycillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; PI: percentage of inhibition; SI: selectivity index; TI: therapeutic index; VII: viral inhibition index.

Several studies have tested the antimicrobial activity of macroalgal extracts obtained with different solvents. Shanab (2007) compared extracts from three macroalgae species (Sargassum dentifolium, Laurencia papillosa, and Jania corniculata) using two solvents, EtOH and CH₂Cl₂ ^[94]. Both extracts exhibited similar antimicrobial activity against all microorganisms tested (bacteria and yeasts), except against the mold Aspergillus flavus ^[94]. Several extracts from Gracilaria gracilis were studied to identify potential bioactive compounds ^[92]. CHCl₃ and Et₂O extracts (apolar solvents) presented lower extraction yields (% of dry algal biomass) than extracts from more polar solvents (EtOH, MeOH, and acetone). Less polar solvents isolated minor lipid classes (e.g., neutral and medium polar lipids) and showed lower amounts of soluble carbohydrates and total phenols than polar solvents. However, the diameter of the inhibition zones against B. subtilis were slightly lower in these extracts than in the extracts obtained with polar solvents (rich in soluble carbohydrates and phenolic compounds) ^[92]. These results suggest that although less polar solvents have lower yields, they contain compounds with interesting antibacterial features.

The lipids or lipid mixtures, their extracting solvent(s), and the methods used for their characterization in algae species are summarized in Table 3. The results of the antimicrobial assays with lipids and lipid-rich extracts from these algae are summarized in Table 4. Chemical structures of lipids isolated from algae are represented in Figure 1.

3.2. Marine Invertebrates

The chemotaxonomic diversity of marine invertebrates is responsible for the large number of novel compounds identified in their phyla. Tropical biodiversity-rich benthic communities have been the most explored, thus the most fruitful in the identification of new potential antimicrobial compounds ^[113]^[114]^[115]. However, less conventional environments such as the Arctic ocean or mesopelagic communities have been started to be surveyed ^[116]^[117].

Marine invertebrates comprise a growing source of natural compounds, showing novel structures for biomedical and health-promoting applications ^[118]. Bioprospection of new compounds from marine invertebrates has revealed to be a prolific work to discover diverse bioactive compounds with action toward a broad spectrum of microorganisms ^[116]^[119]. Some of these reports have identified total lipid extracts as a potential source of bioactive compounds, lacking a sequential workflow of isolation, characterization, and purification of the metabolites responsible for the activity ^[83]^[119]. Although most of these studies used classical bioprospection methods to identify the bioactive compounds from marine species, others followed eco-friendly approaches by using fishing waste ^[117] or seafood by-products ^[120].

Phyla of marine invertebrates recognized as sources of antimicrobial compounds ^[16]^[121] include porifera ^[122]^[123], crustacean ^[124]^[125], mollusk ^[120]^[126]^[127], or cnidaria ^[113]^[115]. Some bacteria isolated from marine organisms have also disclosed antibacterial activity, such as Actinobacteria from sponges ^[26].

The main antibacterial natural products identified in marine invertebrates were peptides, polyketides, alkaloids, terpenes, and lipopeptides ^[14]^[128]^[126]^[129]. However, several antimicrobial lipids classes have been identified. Marine invertebrates produce an array of unique lipids originating from unusual biosynthetic pathways that are not common in other environments, as a result of thriving in diverse and extreme environments ^[118]^[130].

Porifera represents the most studied phylum of marine invertebrates for antimicrobial compounds’ bioprospection, including lipids ^[131]^[132]. The high contribution of these ancestral metazoans for bioactive compounds’ research seems to be related to their high filtering activity, pumping water during feeding, which expose them to viruses, bacteria, and eukaryotic organisms (pathogenic and non-pathogenic) ^[133]^[134].

Table 5 assembles the information regarding lipids from marine invertebrate species having antimicrobial activity. Table 6 summarizes the information about the antimicrobial properties, the tested organisms, and the antimicrobial assays for each marine invertebrates’ species listed in Table 5. Figure 1 illustrates the chemical structure of the main lipid classes with antimicrobial properties from these natural sources.

Table 5. Marine invertebrate lipids or lipid-rich extracts with antimicrobial potential, their origin and extraction method.

Scientific Name	Phylum (Class)	Collection Site	Extracting Solvent(s)/Method	Isolated Lipids or Lipid Classes	Compound Identification Methods	Ref.
Acanthodendrilla sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Gokasho Bay, Tokyo, Japan	MeOH. Aqueous residue extracted with Et₂O and n-BuOH. Organic extract fractionated by SiO₂ (MeOH/CHCl₃), purified by ODS column and C18 RP HPLC	Steroid sulfates	¹H and ¹³C NMR	^[135]
Acanthodendrilla sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Kundingarengkeke Island, Indonesia	EtOH, acetone and MeOH. Crude extract partitioned between aqueous MeOH and hexane, EtOAc, and BuOH. Hexane extract fractionated on normal-phase SiO₂ column (n-hexane/EtOAc, 7:3, v/v). Purification by semi-preparative HPLC	Sesterterpenes (Luffariellolide derivatives, Acantholides)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS, HR-EI-MS	^[136]
Agelas oroides	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Gökçeada, Northern Aegean Sea, Turkey	MeOH, MeOH/CHCl₃ (1:1, v/v) and CHCl₃. Extract dissolved in MeOH/H₂O (9:1, v/v) partitioned against n-hexane. n-hexane, CH₃Cl and MeOH extracts fractionated on SiO₂ (EtOAc (0 → 100%) in hexane). Sephadex LH20 and C18 flash column	FA	¹H and ¹³C NMR, 1D and 2D NMR, GC-MS, ESI-MS	^[137]
Caminus sphaeroconia	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Dominica	MeOH extracts chromatographed on Sepahdex LH 20 (MeOH and EtOAc/MeOH/H₂O 20:5:2). Purification by gradient on SiO₂ (CH₂Cl₂ to CH₂Cl₂/MeOH 9:1, v/v)	Glycolipid (Caminoside)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS	^[123]
Caminus sphaeroconia	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Dominica	MeOH extract purified by Sephadex LH-20 (MeOH). Sephadex LH-20 (EtOAc/MeOH/H₂O (20:5:2, v/v))	Glycolipid (Caminoside)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS	^[138]
Dysidea arenaria	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Hainan Island, South China Sea, China	CHCl₃-soluble portion was repartitioned between petroleum ether and 90% MeOH. MeOH extract on flash SiO₂ column (ether/EtOAc gradient)	Sesquiterpenoid (Sesquiterpenoid hydroquinone)	¹H and ¹³C-NMR, ESI-MS	^[139]
Dysidea sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Lakshadweep Islands, Kerala, India	EtOAc and MeOH. EtOAc extract chromatographed on Sephadex LH20 (MeOH/CHCl₃, 1:1, v/v), SiO₂ (2% EtOAc petroleum ether)	Sesterterpenes (Sesterterpene sulfates)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, HR-FAB-MS	^[140]
Erylus lendenfeldi	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Gulf of Eilat, Red Sea	MeOH/CHCl₃, RP on a C18 column (decreasing percentage of H₂O in MeOH)	Steroidal glycoside (Eryloside)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, UV, IR	^[141]
Erylus placenta	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Hachijo Island, Japan	n-PrOH/H₂O (3:1, v/v). Extracts partitioned between H₂O and CHCl₃. H₂O layer partitioned between n-BuOH and H₂O. BuOH fraction separated by C18 flash (n-PrOH/H₂O (1:9, 3:7, 5:5, and 8:2, v/v) and CHCl₃/MeOH/H₂O(6:4:1, v/v))	Steroidal glycoside (Sokodosides)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, GC-FID, UV	^[142]
Euryspongia sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Light House Reef, Koror, Palau	MeOH. Extracts fractionated by HP20SS column (acetone/H₂O)	Steroid sulfates (Eurysterols)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS, UV, IR	^[143]
Fasciospongia sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia	EtOH extract partitioned into n-BuOH and H₂O soluble fractions. n-BuOH fraction subsequently defatted by sequential trituration in n-hexane and CH₂Cl₂ soluble fractions. CH₂Cl₂ fractions subjected to SPE or HLPC	Meroterpene (Meroterpene sulfate fascioquinol)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, HR-ESI-MS, UV	^[144]
Halichondria sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Unten Port, Okinawa, Japan	Methanolic extract partitioned between H₂O and EtOAc. EtOAc soluble material subjected to SiO₂ column (CHCl₃/MeOH, (95:5, v/v) and petroleum ether/Et₂O (9:1, v/v))	Sesquiterpenoids (Halichonadins)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, EI-MS, IR	^[145]
Halichondria sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)		MeOH extract partitioned between H₂O and EtOAc. EtOAc-soluble material subjected to SiO₂ column (n-hexane/EtOAc, 1:1 → MeOH). MeOH fraction subjected to SiO₂ column (CHCl₃/MeOH, 95:5 → 7:3). CHCl₃/MeOH (7:3) fraction separated on SiO₂ column (EtOAc/MeOH, 5:1 → MeOH)	Sesquiterpenoid (Halichonadins)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS, HR-ESI-MS, IR	^[146]
Haliclona simulans	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Kilkieran Bay, Galway, Ireland	Acetone and MeOH extracts subjected to HP20 chromatography (100% H₂O → 100% MeOH). Fractionated on flash forward system. SiO₂ column (100% hexane → 100% EtOAc)	Steroids (24-vinyl-cholest-9-ene-3β,24-diol, 20-methyl-pregn-6-en-3β-ol,5α,8α-epidioxy, 24-methylenecholesterol)	¹H- and ¹³C NMR, GC-MS	^[147]
Jaspis stellifera	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Ishigaki Island, Okinawa, Japan	MeOH. EtOAc soluble material subjected to SiO₂ column (CHCI₃/MeOH, 9:1 and hexane/EtOAc, 3:7, v/v). EtOAc-soluble material subjected to SiO₂ columns and C18 HPLC	Nortriterpenoids (Jaspiferals)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, EI-MS, UV, IR	^[148]
Luffariella geometrica	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Great Australian Bight, Australia	CH₂Cl₂. Sequential fractionation to obtain pure compounds	Sesterterpenes (Luffarins)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, EI-MS, UV, IR	^[149]
Luffariella variabilis	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Western Carolines, Palau	CH₂Cl₂, purified by chromatography	Sesterterpenoids (Manoalide)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, UV, IR	^[150]
Luffariella variabilis	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Western Carolines, Palau	CH₂Cl₂, purified by chromatography	Sesterterpenoids (Manoalides)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, UV, IR	^[151]
Melophlus sarasinorum	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Makassar, Sulawesi Island, Indonesia	Acetone and MeOH. Extract partitioned between EtOAc and H₂O. Aqueous extract on HP20 (MeOH, H₂O). MeOH eluate on C18 (MeOH and H₂O, gradient elution)	Steroidal glycosides (Sarasinoside)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, HR-ESI-MS, LC-MS, UV	^[152]
Oceanapia sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Kamagi Bay, Sada Peninsula, Japan	MeOH extracts partitioned between ether and H₂O. Organic phase partitioned between n-hexane and MeOH/H₂O (9:1, v/v). Aqueous MeOH fraction subjected to C18. Purification on SiO₂ column (CHCl₃, CHCl₃/MeOH (9:1), CHCl₃/MeOH/H₂O (6:4:1), and MeOH)	Acetylenic acid	¹H and ¹³C NMR, FAB-MS, UV, IR	^[153]
Paragrantia cf. waguensis	Porifera (Calcarea)	Onna village, Okinawa, Japan	MeOH extract partitioned between H₂O and EtOAc. EtOAc extract subjected to Sephadex LH20 (CH₂Cl₂/MeOH, 1:1, v/v). Fraction separation on RP HPLC	Acetylenic acid	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS, UV, IR	^[154]
Petrosia weinbergi	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Acklin Island, Bahamas	MeOH/CHCl₃ (1:1, v/v). Aqueous suspension extracted with EtOAc, EtOAc/n-BuOH (1:1), and n-BuOH. Active extracts fractionated by C18 HPLC	Steroid sulfates (Weinbersterol disulfates)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, FAB-MS, IR	^[155]
Poecillastra wondoensis, Rhabdastrella wondoensis (two-sponge association)	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Cheju Island, South Korea	MeOH (70%). Extract partitioned with Et₂O and H₂O. Aqueous phase extracted with n-BuOH, subjected to C18 flash chromatography and Sephadex LH-20. Purification on C18 HPLC	Steroidal glycosides (Wondosterols)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, FAB-MS, UV, IR	^[156]
Pseudoceratina purpurea	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Kaunakakai Harbor, O’ahu island, Hawaii, USA	EtOH and methylene chloride. Combined extracts partitioned (hexane, methylene chloride and BuOH) Isolation: SiO₂ flash column (hexane). Purification: Sephadex LH-20	Bromotyramine homoserine-derived (Mololipids)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, HR-FAB-MS, UV, IR	^[157]
Axinyssa digitata	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Tunisia	Acetone extract partitioned between H₂O and Et₂O. Aqueous residue re-extracted with n-BuOH and chromatographed on Sephadex LH-20 column (MeOH) and C18 HPLC	Steroid sulfates (Halistanol sulfates)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, FAB-MS	^[158]
Siliquariaspongia sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Motualevu reef, Fiji	H₂O and MeOH/CH₂Cl₂ (1:1, v/v). n-BuOH-soluble material from the aqueous extract and CHCl₃-soluble material from the organic extract chromatographed on Sephadex LH-20 (MeOH/H₂O, 3:1, v/v). Purification by RP HPLC	Brominated long-chain acids (Motualevic acids)	¹H- and ¹³C-NMR, LC-MS, HR-ESI-MS, FT-IR	^[159]
Siphonodictyon coralliphagum	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Lighthouse Reef and Glover Reef, Belize	EtOH. Aqueous suspension extracted with CH₂Cl₂, EtOAc and n-BuOH. EtOAc extract fractionated by chromatography and purified on SiO₂ plates	Phenolic aldehydes (Siphonodictyal)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, IR, UV	^[160]
Spheciospongia purpurea	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Weizhou Island, Guangxi Autonomous Region, China	Acetone. Extract resuspended in H₂O and partitioned with Et₂O. Et₂O extract fractionated on SiO₂ (petroleum ether/acetone, 1:0 → 0:1), Sephadex LH-20 (CH₂Cl₂/MeOH, 1:1). Purification by C18 HPLC	Lysophospholipids (PAF(16:0), PAF (16:1 n-5), PAF (18:0), PAF (18:1 n-7), PAF (18:1 n-11), PAF (18:1 n-13))	¹H and ¹³C NMR, IR, ESI-MS, HR-ESI-MS, LC-MS/MS	^[122]
Family Spongiidae	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Unten Port, Okinawa, Japan	MeOH extract partitioned between EtOAc and H₂O. H₂O-soluble portions extracted with n-BuOH. EtOAc and n-BuOH, soluble materials purified by SiO₂ columns and C18 HPLC	Sesquiterpenoid (Sesquiterpenoid quinones, Nakijiquinones)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, FAB-MS, UV, IR	^[161]
Suberites domuncula	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Rovinj, Croatia	MeOH and CHCl₃. Combined extracts partitioned between H₂O and BuOH. Organic layer fractionated by medium-pressure on C18 (linear gradient H₂O → MeOH → CHCl₃). Purification by RP HPLC	Lysophospholipids (PAF)	¹H NMR, FIA-MS, LC-MS/MS	^[134]
Topsentia sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia	CH₂Cl₂/MeOH (1:1, v/v). Extract fractionated by SPE using C18 cartridges	Steroid sulfates (Eurysterols)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, HR-ESI-MS, IR, UV	^[162]
Xestospongia sp.	Porifera (Demospongiae)	Rasch Pass of Madang, Papua New Guinea	Hexane, CH₂Cl₂ and EtOAc. Hexane extract subjected to flash column (gradient hexane/EtOAc (95:5, v/v) → EtOAc)	Brominated FA	¹H and ¹³C NMR, IR, UV, HR-EI-MS, HR-APCI-MS, HR-FAB-MS	^[114]
Hyas araneus, Podopthalmus vigil, Lauridromia dehanni, Charybdis helleri, Portunus sanguinolentus, Portunus pelagicus	Arthropoda (Malacostraca)	Vellar Estuary, India	MeOH	Lysoglycerolipids/glycerides FA/esters	¹H and ¹³C NMR, ESI-MS/MS, FT-IR	^[124]
Meganyctiphanes norvegica	Arthropoda (Malacostraca)	Straits of Messina, central Mediterranean Sea, Italy	H₂O/acetone (1:1, v/v). Supernatant recovered with CH₂Cl₂. Extracts fractionated by semi-preparative RP HPLC-DAD on SB-C8 column	FA (EPA, DHA, ETA)	LC-MS, HPLC-UV-HR-MS	^[117]
Aplidium sp.	Chordata (Ascidiacea)	Northland, New Zealand	MeOH-CH₂Cl₂ extract fractionated with RF C18 flash column (MeOH/H₂O), Sephadex LH20 (MeOH), semi-preparative C18 HPLC	Meroterpene derivatives (Rossinones)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, HR-FAB-MS, UV, IR	^[163]
Eunicea succinea	Cnidaria (Anthozoa)	Mona Island, Puerto Rico,	CHCl₃/MeOH (1:1, v/v). Extract fractionated by SiO₂ column chromatography	FA ((5Z,9Z)-14-methyl-5,9-pentadecadienoic acid)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, GC-MS, HR-MS, IR	^[113]
Lobophytum crassum	Cnidaria (Anthozoa)	Rameswaram, India	Aqueous EtOH (95%), MeOH. Extract partitioned with H₂O and EtOAc. EtOAc extract fractionated on SiO₂ column (gradient hexane/EtOAc)	Cembranoid diterpene Ceramide	¹H and ¹³C NMR, FAB-MS, IR	^[164]
Antillogorgia elisabethae	Cnidaria (Anthozoa)	Bahamas	MeOH. Extract redissolved in EtOH/H₂O (2:8, v/v). EtOH/H₂O extract reextracted with EtOAc, SiO₂ column (hexane, 0 → 100% EtOAc/hexane, 0 → 100% MeOH/EtOAc). Fractions subjected to RP HPLC (0 → 100% H₂O/Acetonitrile)	Diterpenes (Elisabethin)	¹H, ¹³C NMR, HR-EI-MS, UV, IR	^[165]
Sinularia grandilobata, Sinularia sp.	Cnidaria (Anthozoa)	Andaman Islands, India	EtOH. Extract reextracted with EtOAc. Combined extracts fractionated on SiO₂ column (gradient system hexane/EtOAc (100:0 → 0:100))	Sphingolipids Glycolipids	¹H and ¹³C NMR, EI-MS	^[115]
Holothuria scabra	Echinodermata (Echinozoa)	Red Sea, Egypt	EtOH (70%), MeOH, EtOAc and CHCl₃/MeOH (2:1, v/v)	Pigments (Carotenoids)	HPLC-UV/VIS, GC-MS	^[166]
Dosidicus gigas	Mollusca (Cephalopoda)	Hermosillo, Mexico	Acidified MeOH (MeOH/HCl, 99:1, v/v)	Pigments (Ommochrome)	¹H and ¹³C NMR, FT-IR,	^[120]
Saccostrea glomerata	Mollusca (Bivalvia)	Kovalam, Tamilnadu, India	Hexane, EtOAc and MeOH. Purification on SiO₂ column (hexane/EtOAc and EtOAc/MeOH)	Sterols [Cholesta-5,22-dien-3β-ol, Cholesterol, Ergosta-5,22-dien-3-ol, (3β,22E)-], FA (6-Octadecenoic acid, Octadecanoic acid)	GC-MS, FT-IR	^[167]

Table 6. Antimicrobial activity of lipids or lipid-rich extracts from marine invertebrates.

Scientific Name	Activity	Tested (Micro)Organisms	Antimicrobial Testing Method/Evaluation	Reference Antimicrobial (Positive Control)	MIC, Diameter of Inhibition Zone (IZ) or Other	Ref.
Acanthodendrilla sp.	Antifungal	Yeast: S. cerevisiae (A364A, STX338-2C, 14028g, GT160-45C)	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm): 7–11	^[135]
Acanthodendrilla sp.	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): S. aureus, B. subtilis G(-): E. coli, Yeast: C. albicans Fungi: Cladosporium herbarum	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) S. aureus: 7–11 B. subtilis: 7–12 E. coli: 7–12 C. albicans: 9–10 C. herbarum: 10–20	^[136]
Agelas oroides	Antibacterial, Antiplasmodial	Acid-fast bacterium: M. tuberculosis Parasitic protozoa: P. falciparum, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, T. cruzi, L. donovani G(-): E. coli	[³H]-hypoxanthine incorporation assay, 96-well microtiter plates, inhibition of enzymatic activity	Artemisinin, Benznidazole, Melarsoprol, Miltefosine, Podophyllotoxin, Triclosan	IC₅₀ (µg/mL) Antibacterial M. tuberculosis: 9.4–>50 E. coli: 0.07–>50 Antiprotozoal: 0.35–>30	^[137]
Caminus sphaeroconia	Antibacterial	G(+): MRSA, Enterococcus (VRE) G(-): E. coli	in vitro inhibition		MIC (µg/mL) MRSA: 12 VRE: 12 E. coli: > 100	^[123]
Caminus sphaeroconia	Antibacterial	G(+): MRSA, Enterococcus (VRE) G(-): Xanthomonas maltophilia Plant pathogen: Pythium ultimum	Disk diffusion method		MIC (µg/disk) MRSA: 6.3–>100 VRE: 3.1–>100 X. maltophilia: 25–>100 P. ultimum: 25–>100	^[138]
Dysidea arenaria	Antiviral	Virus: HIV-1		PFA	IC₅₀ (µM) 16.4–239.7	^[139]
Dysidea sp.	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus, B. subtilis, M. luteus G(-): P. vulgaris, S. typhimurium, E. coli	Broth macrodilution method	Linezolid	MIC (µg/mL) 0.117–>15	^[140]
Erylus lendenfeldi	Antifungal	Yeast: C. albicans			MIC (µg/mL) 15.6	^[141]
Erylus placenta	Antifungal	G(+): S. aureus G(-): E. coli Fungus: Mortierella ramanniana Yeasts: S. cerevisiae (cdc28, act1-1, erg6)	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) M. ramanniana: 11–12 S. cerevisiae: 8–18	^[142]
Euryspongia sp.	Antifungal	Yeasts: C. albicans (ATCC 32354, wild-type) (ATCC 90873, amphotericin B-resistant)	Liquid antifungal assay	Amphotericin B	MIC (µg/mL): 15.6–62.5	^[143]
Fasciospongia sp.	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus (ATCC 25923, ATCC 9144), B. subtilis (ATCC 6051, ATCC 6633) G(-): E. coli (ATCC 11775), P. aeruginosa (ATCC 10145) Yeast: C. albicans (ATCC 90028)	96-well microtiter plate	Penicillin, Fluconazole	IC₅₀ (µM) S. aureus: 0.95–2.5 B. subtilis: 0.3–7.0	^[144]
Halichondria sp.	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): M. luteus, B. subtilis G(-): E. coli Yeasts: C. neoformans, C. albicans, Fungi: Paecilomyces variotii, A. niger, A. fumigatus	Broth microdilution method		MIC (µg/mL) M. luteus: 0.52 C. neoformans: 0.0625 C. albicans: 2.09 P. variotii: 1.04 A. niger: 1.04 A. fumigatus: 1.04	^[145]
Halichondria sp.	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): M. luteus Yeast: C. neoformans Fungi: T. mentagrophytes			MIC (µg/mL) M. luteus: 4 T. mentagrophytes: 8–16 C. neoformans: 16	^[146]
Haliclona simulans	Anti-mycobacterial Antitrypanosomal	Acid-fast bacterium: Mycobacterium marinum Parasitic trypanosomatida: T. brucei	Broth microdilution method	Gentamycin	MIC (µM): M. marinum: 156.9–288.8 T. b. brucei: 4.58–21.56	^[147]
Jaspis stellifera	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): Sarcina lutea Yeast: C. neoformans Fungi: T. mentagrophytes			MIC (µg/mL) S. lutea: 50 C. neoformans: 50 T. mentagrophytes: 12.5	^[148]
Luffariella geometrica	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus, Micrococcus sp. Yeast: S. cerevisiae	Disk diffusion method		EC (µg/disk) S. aureus: 100 Micrococcus sp.: 100	^[149]
Luffariella variabilis	Antibacterial	G(+): Streptomyces pyogenes, S. aureus			Active against S. pyogenes, S. aureus	^[150]
Luffariella variabilis	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus, B. subtilis G(-): E. coli, P. aeruginosa Yeast: C. albicans			Active against S. aureus, B. subtilis	^[151]
Melophlus sarasinorum	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): B. subtilis (DSM2109) G(+): E. coli (DSM10290) Yeast: S. cerevisiae	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) B. subtilis: 9 S. cerevisiae: 10–13	^[152]
Oceanapia sp.	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): B. subtilis, S. aureus G(-): E. coli, P. aeruginosa Yeast: S. cerevisiae, C. albicans (GT160-45C, cdc5, act1-1, YAT2296c) Fungi: Penicillium chrysogenum, Mortierella ramanniana	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) S. cerevisiae: 6.5–10 C. albicans: 8 E. coli: 8.5–12.0 P. aeruginosa: 8.5–13.0 B. subtilis: 11.0 S. aureus: 9.5–13.5	^[153]
Paragrantia cf. waguensis	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus (IAM 12084) G(-): E. coli (ATCC 12600)	Broth microdilution method	Rifampicin, Nalidixic acid	MIC (µg/mL) S. aureus: 64 E. coli: 128	^[154]
Petrosia weinbergi	Antiviral	Viruses: Feline leukemia virus (FeLV), HIV			EC₅₀ (µg/mL) FeLV: 4.0–5.2 HIV: 1.0	^[155]
Poecillastra wondoensis, Rhabdastrella wondoensis (two-sponge association)	Antibacterial	G(-): P. aeruginosa, E. coli	Disk diffusion method		Active concentration 10 µg/disk	^[156]
Pseudoceratina purpurea	Antiviral	Virus: HIV-1			EC₅₀ (µM): 52.2	^[157]
Axinyssa digitata	Antiviral	Viruses: HIV-1, HIV-2			EC₅₀ (µg/mL) HIV-1: 3–6 HIV-2: Not referred	^[158]
Siliquariaspongia sp.	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus, MRSA	Disk diffusion method, Microbroth dilution		MIC₅₀ (µg/mL) S. aureus: 1.2–10.9 S. aureus (MRSA): 3.9–400	^[159]
Siphonodictyon coralliphagum	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus, B. subtilis			Active against S. aureus, B. subtilis	^[160]
Spheciospongia purpurea	Antifungal	Yeasts: C. neoformans (32609), C. glabrata (537) Fungi: T. rubrum (Cmccftla), A. fumigatus (07544),	Broth dilution	Amphotericin B, Fluconazole, Voriconazole, Ketoconazole	MIC₈₀ (µg/mL) C. neoformans: 4–32 C. glabrata: 8–64 A. fumigatus: >64 T. rubrum: >64	^[122]
Family Spongiidae	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): B. subtilis, M. luteus, S. aureus G(-): E. coli Yeasts: C. albicans, C. neoformans Fungi: A. niger			MIC (µm/mL) B. subtilis: 33.3 E. coli: >33.3 M. luteus: 16.7–33.3 S. aureus: 33.3 C. neoformans: 8.35 C. albicans: 8.35 A. niger: 16.7	^[161]
Suberites domuncula	Antibacterial	Bacterium SB1 (strain isolated from S. domuncula with >98.0% similarity to the alpha-Proteobacterium (MBIC3368)	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm): 4.5–6.8	^[134]
Topsentia sp.	Antifungal	G(+):MRSA, Acid-fast bacterium: M. intracellulare Parasitic protozoa: P. falciparum (D6 and W2 clones), L. donovani Yeasts: C. albicans, C. glabrata, Candida krusei, S. cerevisiae, C. neoformans Fungus: A. fumigatus	Broth microdilution method	Beauvericin	FIC (µM) C. albicans: 0.2–1.8 S. cerevisiae: 0.08–1.34	^[162]
Xestospongia sp.	Antibacterial	G(+): MRSA, S. mutans, S. sobrinus	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) MRSA: 12 S. mutans: 17 S. sobrinus: 14	^[114]
Hyas araneus, Podopthalmus vigil, Lauridromia dehanni, Charybdis helleri, Portunus sanguinolentus, Portunus pelagicus	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): S. aureus, MRSA, S. pyogenes G(-): E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. typhi, S. flexneri, Klebsiella sp., V. cholerae, Acinetobacter sp. Yeasts: Rhodotorula sp., C. albicans, C. neoformans Fungi: A. fumigatus, A. niger	Disk diffusion method	Penicillin, Ketoconazole	IZ (mm) S. pyogenes: 1 S. typhi: 1–3 S. flexneri: 1–6 V. cholerae: 1–4 Acinetobacter sp.: 1	^[124]
Meganyctiphanes norvegica	Antibacterial	G(+): MRSA, MB5393, MSSA, ATCC 29213 G(-): E. coli (ATCC 25922), K. pneumoniae (ATCC 700603) Acid-fast bacterium: M. tuberculosis (H37Ra ATCC 25177)	Well plate, REMA method	Vancomycin hydrochloride, Aztreonam, Gentamycin sulfate	MIC (µg/mL) MRSA: 80–320 MSSA: 320 M. tuberculosis: 320	^[117]
Aplidium sp.	Antibacterial Antiviral Antifungal	G(+): B. subtilis Fungi: T. mentagrophytes Virus: HSV-1	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) B. subtilis/T. mentagrophytes: 3–6 Antiviral activity at 2 μg/disk	^[163]
Eunicea succinea	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus (ATCC 25923), E. faecalis (ATCC 29212) G(-): P. aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), E. coli (ATCC 25922)	Broth microdilution method		MIC (µmol/mL)/IC₅₀ (µg/mL) S. aureus: 0.24/36 E. faecalis: 0.16/<10	^[113]
Lobophytum crassum	Antibacterial	G(+): S. epidermidis, B. subtilis, S. aureus G(-): P. aeruginosa	Disk diffusion method	Ampicillin	IZ (mm) S. epidermidis: 9.5–16.5 B. subtilis: 8.5–18.0 S. aureus: 9.0–19.5 P. aeruginosa: 9.0–14.0	^[164]
Antillogorgia elisabethae	Antibacterial	G(+): S. pyogenes (ATCC 19615), S. aureus (ATCC 25923), E. faecalis (ATCC 19433) G(-): E. coli (ATCC 25933), P. aeruginosa (ATCC 27853)	Disk diffusion method		MIC (µg/mL)/IZ (mm) S. pyogenes: 0.8–1.0/12–17 S. aureus: 2.0–2.3/8–11 E. faecalis: 3.2–3.8/8–9	^[165]
Sinularia grandilobata, Sinularia sp.	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): B. subtilis (MTCC 441), Bacillus pumilus (NCIM 2327) G(-): E. coli (MTCC 443), P. aeruginosa (MTCC 1688) Yeast: C. albicans (MTCC 183) Fungi: A. niger (MTCC 1344), Rhizopus oryzae (MTCC 1987)	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) B. subtilis: 11–18 B. pumilus: 11–16 E. coli: 11–17 P. aeruginosa: 11–17 C. albicans: 8–17 A. niger: 10–16 R. oryzae: 10–15	^[115]
Holothuria scabra	Antibacterial	G(+): S. aureus (ATCC 6538), E. faecalis G(-): P. aeruginosa (ATCC 8739), V. damsela, E. coli	Well-cut diffusion technique		AU S. aureus: 1.2–2.8 E. faecalis: 1.7–3.2 P. aeruginosa: 1.4–1.8 V. damsela: 1.6 E. coli: 1.2	^[166]
Dosidicus gigas	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): B. cereus (CCM 2010), Clostridium perfringens (CCM 4991), Listeria monocytogenes (CCM 4699), S. aureus subs. aureus (CCM 2461) G(-): Haemophilus influenza (CCM 4456), K. pneumoniae (CCM 2318), S. enterica subs. enterica (CCM 3807) Yeasts: C. albicans (CCM 8186), C. glabrata (CCM 8270), C. tropicalis (CCM 8223) Fungi: Aspergillus clavatus, A. flavus, Aspergillus versicolor, Penicillium chrisogenum, Penicillium griseofulvum, Penicillium expansum	Disk diffusion method		Inhibition (%) B. cereus: 39.4 C. perfringens: 45.5 L. monocytogenes: 60.7 S. aureus subs. aureus: 57.8 H. influenza: 54.5 K. pneumoniae: 39.4 S. enterica subs. enterica: 93.9 C. albicans: 66.7 C. glabrata: 42.4 C. tropicalis: 33.3 A. clavatus: 48.4 A. flavus: 42.4 A. versicolor: 42.4 P. chrisogenum: 39.4 P. griseofulvum: 42.4 P. expansum: 48.5	^[120]
Saccostrea glomerata	Antibacterial Antifungal	G(+): S. aureus G(-): P. aeruginosa, V. harveyi, A. hydrophila, P. aeruginosa, V. harveyi, V. parahaemolyticus Yeast: C. albicans Fungi: A. niger, A. flavus, Fusarium sp. Virus: White spot syndrome virus (WSSV)	Disk diffusion method		IZ (mm) P. aeruginosa: 4.1–16.0 V. harveyi: 3.8–14.9 A. hydrophila: 5.1–14.5 A. niger: No activity–High activity C. albicans: No activity–High activity Fusarium sp: No activity–High activity Antiviral activity: PI < 91.85%	^[167]

Abbreviations: AU: activity unit for the clear zone; EC: effective concentration; FIC: fractional inhibitory concentration; IZ: inhibition zone; MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration; PI: percentage inhibition.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/antibiotics9080441

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